Background

The terms clavicymbalum, magno cimbalo, and clavicembalo appear in several documents from the courts of Ferrara, Modena, and Padua ^{(Strohm, 1991}; ^{Coelho & Polk, 2016}; ^{Kottick, 2003)}. As for the world’s surviving harpsichords, the oldest dates to the 16^th century, with at least 40 examples built before 1600 ^{(Koster, 2019, p. 7)}, with Italian specimens being those made by Vinncentius in 1515 and by Hieronymus Bononiensis in 1521 ^{(Wraight, 1986}; ^{Hubbard, 1965)}.

Italian makers produced two varieties of harpsichords: the first variety consists of instruments with thin sides, which required an external case to protect them, while the sides of the second variety were simply made thicker to simulate the case feature found in the first one. Moreover, specific characteristics distinguish the instruments built from one city to another’s. In the case of Neapolitan harpsichords, we find that the rail support that protects the mechanism³ is held in place by a groove that coincides with a wooden bar attached to the walls of the instrument. Additionally, the keyboards of these harpsichords are removed from the instrument horizontally, as it would be done with a typical drawer. Finally, these instruments often had a decorative parchment rose on the soundboard, in addition to ornamental patterns on the keys ^{(O’Brien, 2009}; ^{O’Brien & Nocerino, 2005)}.

The wood species used for the building of harpsichords, which differ in each country, were usually determined by local availability. The use of cypress wood (Cupressus sempervirens) was exclusive to Italian makers: it is found on the sides of harpsichords as well as in the keyboards, jacks,⁴ and even the soundboard ^{(Hubbard, 1965, p. 203)}. Hubbard demonstrates just how frequently it is used: in a sample of 62 Italian harpsichords, 47 had a soundboard made of this wood ^{(Hubbard, 1965, pp. 38-39)}. The wood used in the soundboard is generally quarter-sawn, except for the harpsichord studied by ^{Jensen (1998)}, which is made of cypress wood and has a tangential cut (p. 71). This element is important since Italian makers are the only ones who came to use tangential cut wood in their soundboards ^{(Hubbard, 1965, p. 10}; ^{Kottick, 2003, p. 73)}.

Olive wood (Olea europaea), although not very widespread, was used due to its great hardness and attractive appearance. In Italy it came to be used as a structural part of the instrument since, being of local origin, large planks could be easily obtained. ^{Chirico (2009)} records its use for repairing the frame of a harpsichord belonging to Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni in 1694 (p. 112). Outside Italy, it was mainly used as veneer for decorative details in marquetry and intarsia ^{(Germann, 2007, p. 136)}.

Softwoods, such as fir (Abies alba) and spruce (Picea abies), were useful for the soundboard of harpsichords, while hardwoods, such as pear (Pyrus communis) and boxwood (Buxus sempervirens), were useful for the mechanism ^{(Hubbard, 1965, p. 201)}. Finally, for the building of harpsichords, imported woods were reserved for the decorative elements due to their high cost. Ebony (Diospyros crassiflora), from Africa, is a wood that, because of its hardness and color, is almost always found as key covers.

Although cypress is the signature wood used in Italian instruments, there is a margin of variation and variability depending on the cities where the harpsichords were built. ^{Martin (2012)} identified that both the sides and the soundboard of those made in Venice were made from cypress wood, while in Naples and Sicily maple was used for the former and, sometimes, also for the latter (p. 20). This is corroborated by ^{Koster (2019)}, who also points that Neapolitan harpsichords have maple sides and a spruce soundboard, as opposed to Venetian ones, with cypress sides and soundboard (p. 8). As for Rome and Florence, their harpsichords had cypress sides and spruce soundboard ^{(Martin, 2012, p. 20)}.

Hypothesis

The construction and structural system as well as the types of wood used in the MCB harpsichord correspond to an instrument of Neapolitan origin.

Methodology

Study of the microscopic anatomy of wood

Sampling

Samples of 1.5 mm² were extracted from eight selected areas in each representative structure of the constructive technology: soundboard, nameboard, jack, wrest plank, sharp key, side of the instrument, natural key, and bridge (Figure 4), which were taken to the Laboratorio de Anatomía Funcional y Biomecánica de Plantas Vasculares (Laboratory of Functional Anatomy and Biomechanics of Vascular Plants) at Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Unidad Iztapalapa (UAM-I).

(Drawing: Ramsés Juárez, 2023)

Figure 4 Schematic drawing of the MCB harpsichord. 

Processing

The fragments were deposited in vials with a hydrating solution in PEG 200 at 15%. Samples were mounted on a freezing slide and covered with Tissue Teck^® to cut the three typical sections using a Leica^® freezing microtome at -20 °C. Transverse, tangential, and radial sections were made and mounted on slides and covered with Entellan Resin^®. Photographs were taken to verify the microscopic structure in the sections obtained.

Identification was made by comparing the presence or absence of vessel elements and their cellular contents, such as gums, latex, or crystals; porosity,⁵ vessel grouping;⁶ axial⁷ and radial parenchyma,⁸ and fibers.⁹ The analysis of each wood included the recognition of characteristic cells from each genus. Descriptions followed the criteria of the International Association of Wood Anatomists ^{(IAWA, 1989)}, ^{Kribs (1968)}, and ^{Schweingruber (1990)}.

Results

Structural analysis

The physical characteristics of the MCB harpsichord were compared with those presented in the existing literature. The elements of the instrument that were analyzed were its general layout, the keyboard structure, the rail fastening, the remains of the rose, and the decorative pattern of the keys.

The harpsichord is 2.04 m long, 83.8 cm wide, and 18.6 cm deep; it consists of a single keyboard with two sets of strings per note. Along the inside of the sides, a molding simulates the rim of the instrument inside a thicker-walled case. As mentioned previously, in the background of this article, this feature is unique to harpsichords built in Italy.

The next element that yields information about the origin of the instrument is keyboard (Figure 5). Although most of the keys of the MCB harpsichord have been lost, in its present state three natural keys and six sharps remain. The original compass of the instrument is four octaves, with a total of fifty keys, an arrangement that is consistent with the Italian makers of the 17^th and early 18^th century ^{(Kottick, 2003, pp.133-135)}. The keyboard is held in place by two blocks that overlap the keyboard frame, meaning that it is only detachable horizontally (Figure 6).

(Photograph: Ramsés Juárez, 2020; courtesy: Museo Casa de la Bola, Fundación Cultural Antonio Haghenbeck y de la Lama IAP’s collection, 2023)

Figure 5 Keyboard of the MCB harpsichord, outside the instrument. 

(Photograph: Ramsés Juárez, 2020; courtesy: Museo Casa de la Bola, Fundación Cultural Antonio Haghenbeck y de la Lama IAP’s collection, 2023)

Figure 6 Detail of the left block of the keyboard. 

According to the research of organologist Grant ^{O’Brien (n. d.)}, this is one of the elements that distinguish Neapolitan harpsichords. Additionally, the harpsichord has a wooden bar on the right side where the rail would have been (Figure 7). Although the bar on the left side has been lost, as has the rail, its presence denotes the rail fastening mechanism described in the background section, which is also characteristic of Neapolitan construction.

(Photograph: Ramsés Juárez, 2020; courtesy: Museo Casa de la Bola, Fundación Cultural Antonio Haghenbeck y de la Lama IAP’s collection, 2023)

Figure 7 Rail attachment bar of the MCB harpsichord. 

The soundboard of the MCB harpsichord preserves the remains of a multi-layered parchment rose (Figure 8). Despite the partial loss, it is still possible to distinguish a quatrefoil structure and traces of the color red in one of the layers. The design of the rosette is particularly interesting since few examples survive with this pattern; in fact, the current state of research has yielded a single rose that bears similarities to that of the MCB harpsichord, and, although incomplete, its resemblance can be observed: It is found on a rectangular virginal by the builder Onofrio Guarracino (1628-c.1698), who was active in Naples.

(Photograph: Ramsés Juárez, 2020; courtesy: Museo Casa de la Bola, Fundación Cultural Antonio Haghenbeck y de la Lama IAP’s collection, 2023)

Figure 8 Parchment rose from the MCB harpsichord. 

The sharps have a particular decorative pattern that incorporates dark wood-ebony -and a light material -ivory or bone -in a triangular design. Although there are several harpsichords with richly ornamented sharps, this type of triangular pattern is notoriously rare. Fortunately, it has also been identified on an instrument by the Neapolitan builder Ignazio Mucciardi. Both, the rose and key pattern of the MCB harpsichord, are consistent with the findings of ^{O’Brien (n. d.)}, who states that harpsichords built in Naples typically carried elaborately detailed parchment roses as well as sharps with distinctive decorative patterns.

Anatomical identification of woods

Soundboard

It is made from wood of the genus Picea sp., possibly P. abies; it belongs to the Pinaceae family, with the common name: spruce.

Microscopic anatomical description: Earlywood and latewood tracheids are present, growth ring boundaries distinct. Axial parenchyma is not observed, pits in cross-field are piceoid, sometimes taxodioid (Figure 9 a-d).

(Photographs: Alejandra Quintanar-Isaías & Ana Teresa Jaramillo-Pérez, 2021; courtesy: Laboratory of Functional Anatomy and Biomechanics of Vascular Plants, UAM-I

Figure 9 a-d. Picea sp. (pinabete); d. Piceoid pits in cross-field; e-h. Cupressus sp. (cypress); i-l. Olea sp. (olive)  

Nameboard

It is made from wood of the genus Cupressus sp., possibly C. sempervirens; it belongs to the family Cupressaceae, with the common name: cypress.

Microscopic anatomical description: Earlywood and latewood tracheids are present. Axial parenchyma is present, ray lumens and cupressoid pits are present in cross-field and some axial parenchyma cells contain resins (Figure 9 e-h).

Wrest Plank

It is made from wood of the Olea genus, possibly O. europaea; it belongs to the family Oleaceae, with the common name: olive tree.

Microscopic anatomical description: Wood diffuse-porous, pores are very abundant and small, contain yellow gums and tyloses. Vessel elements are solitary and radial multiple up to eight. Alternate bordered intervessel pits are present and vessel-ray pits are similar. Simple perforation plate is present. Marginal Axial parenchyma in concentric bands, apotracheal is scanty diffuse and scanty diffuse in sparse aggregates, paratracheal scanty to vasicentric. Rays, mostly biseriate heterogeneous with one to three rowed square cell tails and the body formed by procumbent cells; they contain yellow vessel-like gums and prismatic crystals. Libriform fibers with simple pits (Figures 9 i-l).

Natural key

It is made from Buxus sp. wood, belonging to the Buxaceae family, with the common name: boxwood.

Microscopic anatomical description: Wood diffuse-porous, pores are very abundant and very small. Vessel elements are mainly solitary and rarely radial multiple, contain few dark brown gums at their lumina. Alternate bordered intervessel pits are present. Scalariform perforation plate. Apotracheal axial parenchyma diffuse and diffuse in aggregates. Rays are mostly triseriate; uniseriate and four-seriate can rarely be seen; heterogeneous; the body formed by procumbent cells and the tails by one or two rows of square cells, without deposits at lumina. Fibers with distinctly bordered pits (Figure 10 a-c).

(Photographs: Alejandra Quintanar- Isaías & Ana Teresa Jaramillo-Pérez, 2021; courtesy: Laboratory of Functional Anatomy and Biomechanics of Vascular Plants, UAM-I)

Figure 10 a-c. Buxus sp. (boxwood); b. Heterogeneous rays characteristic of this genus; d-i. Juglans sp.; a. Axial parenchyma; e and h. Homogeneous rays characteristic of this genus. 

Sharp key and bridge

It is made from Juglans wood, possibly J. nigra; it belongs to the Juglandaceae family, with the common name: walnut.

Microscopic anatomical description: Wood ring-porous to semi-ring-porous; pores are not abundant across the growth ring. Vessel elements are solitary and radial, up to three, contain dark brown gums and tyloses. Alternate bordered intervessel pits are present, and vessel-ray pits, similar. Simple perforation plate present. Marginal axial parenchyma, marginal, diffuse, and diffuse in aggregates; scanty paratracheal and the vasicentric is formed by a single-cell-wide row, with dark brown gums at their lumina. Rays, mostly triseriate, a few up to four series can be seen; homogeneous; the body formed by procumbent cells which contain dark brown gums similar to those at vessels and axial parenchyma lumina. Fibres with minutely bordered pits (Figure 10 d-i).

Jack

It is made from wood of the genus Pyrus, possibly P. communis; it belongs to the Rosaceae family, with the common name: pear tree.

Microscopic anatomical description: Wood diffuse-porous, small and abundant pores with reddish brown gums. Solitary vessel elements, helical thickening present, alternate bordered intervessel pits present and vessel-ray pits are similar. Simple perforation plate. Apotracheal axial parenchyma, diffuse in aggregates; paratracheal parenchyma scanty with deposits and prismatic crystals. Rays width is one to three cells, homogeneous; body formed only by procumbent cells with dark brown gums and prismatic crystals in their lumina. Very thick-walled fibrotracheids with distinctly bordered pits (Figures 11 a-c).

(Photographs: Alejandra Quintanar- Isaías & Ana Teresa Jaramillo-Pérez, 2021; courtesy: Laboratory of Functional Anatomy and Biomechanics of Vascular Plants, UAM-I)

Figure 11 a-c. Pyrus sp. (pear tree); a. Wood diffuse-porous; d-f. Populus sp. (poplar); d. Homogeneous uniseriate slender rays. 

Side of the instrument

It is made from Populus wood, belonging to the Salicaceae family, with the common name: poplar.

Microscopic anatomical description: Wood diffuse-porous to semi-ring porous; pores are generally few across the growth ring. Solitary and radial multiple vessel elements up to two to three, occasionally five are counted, with no gums or other ergastic contents. Alternate bordered intervessel pits are present. Vessel-ray pits with much reduced borders to apparently simple. Simple perforation plate present. Apotracheal axial parenchyma diffuse, scanty, without ergastic deposits. Rays uniseriate, long homogeneous, the body formed by procumbent cells, without ergastic deposits. Fibers with simple pits (Figure 11 d-f).

Discussion

The two transcendent factors in the study of the origin of the MCB harpsichord are related to available and tested wood species in technological and acoustic features of the building of musical instruments; particularly, those like the one we are dealing with here. Moreover, the manufacture and structure of this instrument belong to the group of harpsichords made in Naples towards the end of the 17^th and beginning of the 18^th century, which differ from those manufactured in other Italian cities with specific dispositions and mechanisms.

The wood of the soundboard of the MCB harpsichord belongs to the Picea genus, possibly P. abies, widely used for soundboards in fretted and plucked string instruments, so its presence is in accordance with the tradition and experience of working with this material. The nameboard, made of Cupressus wood, stands out for being light and easy to work with, characteristics required for this section of the instrument. The wrest plank is made of olive wood, which was selected for its aesthetic characteristics, such as its grain, and because it is not prone to deterioration, in addition to meeting the required mechanical resistance standards. The natural keys made of boxwood are traditional due to their resistance properties: it is widely used for polychrome sculpture and in wind instruments such as the bagpipes flutes. Also, its use in the keyboards of Italian harpsichords is extensively documented ^{(Kottick, 2003, p. 75)}.

The sharp keys and the bridge are made of walnut, which coincides with what the documents say on the use of this wood in this part of the instrument. This wood is easy to work with, resistant, and of high aesthetic quality due to its color and grain ^{(Kottick, 2003, p. 167)}.

Pyrus wood was used to make the jack; although it has a light to medium density, it was selected for its mechanical strength required for the ascent and descent mechanism.

Finally, the side of the instrument was made with Populus or poplar wood, which, although very light-and good to work with-, strengthens the structure. Its use in this instrument is particular because of its low resistance to decay; however, it is possible that the maker selected it to allow for a lighter weight. In addition, poplar is also known to be a highly prized wood for furniture.

Conclusions

The results obtained from the comparison of the structural characteristics of the MCB harpsichord manage to identify its correspondence with the distinctive elements of other Italian harpsichords. Therefore, it can be determined that the instrument was built in Italy, possibly at the end of the 17^th century. Additionally, its method of keyboard removal, as well as its rail fastening mechanism, point to a probable origin in the city of Naples.

Finally, the microscopic identification performed on the woods used in its construction is consistent with the types of wood used in Italian harpsichords of the period. In sum, the woods used throughout this instrument are of Mediterranean origin, which corroborates the biocultural use of the species for the building of musical instruments during the Baroque period.