INTRODUCTION

In traditional agriculture, production systems imitate nature by simultaneously developing diverse strata and species; similar to vegetable gardens (^{Gutiérrez et al., 2015}). Vegetable gardens are generally located near the home, are small in size, and in some areas, are considered a sustainable production agroecosystem, where species are planted, tolerated, and managed, for diverse purposes such as self-consumption with sale of surplus, ensuring food availability, favoring generation of agricultural jobs and mitigating poverty, while conserving biodiversity and cultural traditions (^{Borbor et al., 2016}; ^{Reyes-Betanzos, 2017}). Home gardens provide significant savings for families, by curtailing expenses, as products can be grown rather than purchased and in some cases used to generate income from the sale of surplus (^{Toledo et al., 2008}; ^{Sol, 2012}); this income provides leverage to reduce investment in garden expenses and to acquire products not produced there (^{Cano, 2015}).

Worldwide, home gardens have been recognized as an important strategy for achieving the Millennium Development Goals, by complying with Sustainable Development Goals and the 2030 Agenda; thus they have become a popular intervention strategy used by various different development actors to promote family farming (^{Pantoja, 2014}; ^{Krishnamurthy, et al., 2017}; ^{Castañeda-Navarrete, 2021}; ^{Farfán-García, 2022}).

Home gardens have not been considered as an inclusive development strategy (^{Krishnamurthy et al., 2017}), as generally initiatives, programs and projects have failed because they fail to consider local culture and realities (^{Cano, 2015}), which may lead to the disappearance of these sustainable and productive systems (^{González, 2007}).

In some areas, the productive potential of gardens, as a producer and generator of services that can later be transformed into useful goods has been wasted (^{Dussel, 2014}), limiting their productive capacity and their function as services that could contribute to reducing the cost of living or meeting family needs. This scenario requires sustainable proposals or strategies for continuity, so it is important to consider the home garden as a means for transitioning from the local to the global, a paradigm shift in the social, economic, political, and environmental order that maximizes and rationally maximizes the ecosystem services generated by this agro-ecosystem for families.

Globally, home gardens are considered the main focus of production, especially for poor small-scale farming families (^{Kewesse, 2020}). In Southeast Asia, considered to constitute an area where people suffer from severe malnutrition, home gardens have been promoted as a measure to counteract the problem of food shortages (^{Weinberger, 2013}). In West Java, the garden is considered a socioeconomically sustainable production system, playing a fundamental role in providing food and income to the population, by means of a multi-tiered system (^{Park et al., 2019}).

Therefore, this work aimed to estimate the economic and productive potential of small, medium and large vegetable gardens, in relation to the diversity of plant species recorded, by evaluating the monthly family consumption of fruit and vegetable products and the annual production of a 132 m² vegetable garden.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Research on home gardens over the past 10 years has highlighted their importance for food security, sustainability, and family well-being. When properly managed, they contribute significantly to food security, especially in rural and peri-urban areas (^{Altieri et al., 2012}; ^{Gliessman, 2002}). This production system promotes sustainability by reducing dependence on external inputs and encouraging the use of agro-ecological practices, specific to each region (^{Maroyi, 2009}; ^{Ibarra et al., 2019}). Similarly, they generate health benefits by providing fresh and nutritious food and promoting physical activity and family life (^{Alaimo et al., 2008}; ^{Algert et al., 2016}).

Women’s participation in the management of home gardens is essential to the success of these projects, as they are often primarily responsible for food production and management (Yáñez, 2016; ^{Cobo and Paz, 2017}; ^{Román et al., 2024}). Considering the current environmental crisis, home gardens constitute an effective tool for climate change adaptation, as they allow families to produce food in a resilient manner that can adapt to changing climatic conditions (^{Rivas, 2014}; ^{Mattsson et al., 2018}).

The most well-known school of thought that addresses home gardens is agro-ecology, which focuses on designing and managing sustainable, diversified, and resilient agricultural systems that promote biodiversity and ecological health (^{Altieri, 1995}).

Within agro-ecology, there are several theories and concepts that relate to family gardens, such as the theory of small-scale agriculture, which maintains that small-scale food production, such as that in home gardens, is more efficient and sustainable than large-scale production (Gliessman, 2018).

Likewise, the theory of food sovereignty maintains that communities and families should have control over their own food systems, including food production, processing, and consumption; this can be achieved by means of home gardens. Finally, the concept of agro-ecosystems refers to agricultural systems designed to mimic natural ecosystems, promoting biodiversity and ecological health, which home gardens can help achieve (^{Altieri, 1999}).

METHODOLOGY

RESULTS

Productive potential and economic contribution from family gardens

Of the 43 home gardens in the sample, a total of 3,549 plants were obtained, which were grouped into 46 botanical families; 82 genera and 89 species. Of the 89 species registered, the 10 species providing the greatest economic contribution to the families were placed in order; these were: papaya (Carica papaya L.), tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.), mango (Mangifera indica L), banana (Musa × paradisiaca L.), cocao (Theobroma cacao L.), orange (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck), custard apple (Annona muricata L.), achiote (Bixa orellana L.), rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.) and lime (Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck). Trade from these species generated a contribution of $24,342.00, which signifies a significant contribution to the family economy and demonstrates the increased productivity of the home garden. Some of these species, such as lemon, orange, rambutan, mango, banana, and tamarind are introduced by grafting or purchased from local nurseries.

Figure 1 lists the top 10 species grown in the home gardens and their economic contribution. Papaya (Carica papaya L.) generates the most income ($4,650.00), as it is consumed fresh or as fruit juice, and the green fruit is used to make regional sweets; this is followed by tamarind, mango, banana, ornamental fruit, cocoa, etc.

Source: elaborated by the authors based on field information.

Figure 1 Plant species from home gardens that generate the greatest economic contribution. 

Family monthly consumption and acquisition of fruit and vegetable products

As the closest public market to the study area is Playas de Catazajá, Chiapas, located 28 km away, the community obtains its horticultural products from three sources: 35% of required products come from local stores, 34% from street markets and 31% from the family garden. The most consumed horticultural species are beans, onions, garlic, potatoes, carrots, tomatoes, and chayote, purchased from local stores. From street markets, coriander, parsley, potatoes, carrots, garlic and chayote are purchased. From the family garden, species consumed include parsley, plantains and coriander (Figure 2).

Source: elaborated by the authors based on field work information.

Figure 2 Origin and percentage of the 10 fruit and vegetable products most consumed by the inhabitants of La Esperanza ejido, Palenque, Chiapas. 

Comparison of garden size and monthly household income, monthly expenditure on vegetable consumption and production potential of gardens

Figure 3 presents a comparison showing monthly family income, monthly expenditure on vegetable consumption and the garden’s production potential. Evidently, average family income is higher among those with small gardens than for those with the other two garden sizes. Similarly, production potential and monthly expenditure on vegetable consumption is lowest in the case of the small gardens, compared to the medium and large gardens. The medium-sized gardens produce less family income, but achieve greater production potential in the garden and there is greater monthly expenditure on vegetable consumption. Those with large gardens have high family income but the monthly expenditure on vegetable consumption and production potential are lower than in the medium-sized gardens.

Source: elaborated by the authors, based on field information.

Figure 3 Comparison of monthly family income, monthly expenditure on vegetable consumption and the production potential of gardens. 

Medium-sized gardens had the greatest potential for vegetable production, followed by large and small gardens, respectively. This may be because they have space to plant vegetables and do not spend money on purchasing them. However, producers of medium-sized gardens spend more on purchasing vegetables that they do not produce in their gardens, such as garlic, carrots, onions, etc. Medium-sized gardens are those that generate the greatest production potential and benefit for families. This could be because they recorded the greatest number of individual plants; 1,261 that included 55 species, including coriander, chives, plantain, and parsley, which are of economic importance to families. Furthermore, these species are easy to cultivate in small spaces and are easy to manage, and are easy to grow and reuse. Although the same number of species (55) were reported in the small home gardens and the medium-sized ones, these only reported 793 individuals, among which, chives, cocoa and rambutan predominate, and the most and easily marketed is the chive. In the large home gardens, 1,095 of 42 species are reported among which coriander, tomato, banana and chives predominate.

DISCUSSION

The gardens selected in this study were shown to have species with diverse uses, such as fruit, medicinal, ornamental and horticultural plants, as well as those providing timber, condiments, fuel (firewood), condiment-timber, and medicinal-horticultural for personal consumption. These species are planted and harvested according to the agricultural calendar of the area. Results concur with those of ^{Sol (2012)}, who points out that within the garden, there are specialized production areas. Generally, there are four areas: medicinal species, ornamental species, little-used species and common area. Ornamental plants are generally located in front of the house, providing a display of family flowers for others to observe. Medicinal plants are located to the side of the house. Little-used plants are located at the back of the garden, and the rest represents common area.

Of the species recorded making greatest economic contribution for families; these included papaya (Carica papaya L.), tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.), mango (Mangifera indica L), banana (Musa × paradisiaca L.), cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.), orange (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck), soursop (Annona muricata L.), achiote (Bixa orellana L.), rambutn (Nephelium lappaceum L.) and lime (Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck); these species are valued at $24,342.00. A similar income ($23,800.00) was reported by ^{Sol (2012)}, for home gardens on the Tabasco coast, when the dollar was at $12.95 exchange rate.

The fruit trees registered for family gardens in this study represented greater economic value due to trade, which generated extra income for the family and increased interest in self-consumption. Similar results were found for three municipalities in Veracruz, where fruit trees provided greater production in the orchards and were planted according to family needs (^{Álvarez, 2012}; ^{Chávez, 2012}).

The cultivation of leafy vegetables such as pond apple (Piper auritum H.B.K.), basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), chaya (tree spinach shrub, Cnidoscolus chayamansa Mcvaught), chili amashito (Capsicum annuum var aviculare L.), coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), parsley (Eryngium foetidum), and bulbs such as white chives (Allium fistulosum) and purple chives (Allium schoenoprasum) are planted in reduced spaces for self-consumption and their sale generates little income. These results concur with those obtained by ^{Gerardo Méndez et al. (2022)}, who comment that leafy and bulbous vegetables are the most consumed, as they are used almost daily. They are always consumed fresh, depending on the family’s needs, representing a saving as their purchase is avoided.

In the case of medicinal plants, their presence was common in almost all gardens. These are not sold, but rather exchanged or given as gifts within the locality. Although they do not generate income, they make it possible to avoid expenses for treating certain illnesses.

Records show that women in the household decide the types of plants to introduce and experiment with in the gardens, especially ornamental and medicinal plants. This confirmed that women influence garden diversity (^{Lerner et al., 2009}) and their knowledge of the methods and frequency of use of medicinal herbs is more accurate. The sale of fresh and dried medicinal plants is common in the markets of the local municipal capitals.

Among the economic benefits generated by a garden is that it avoids the family spending $24,342.00 per year, by producing for their needs in the garden (^{Moreno-Moreno et al., 2020}). Some species found in the gardens are heliophilous and in the garden there are usually no empty spaces, as the three levels of stratification are occupied: at the top, trees such as orange, avocado or timber; in the middle, banana, guava plants and others; further below, herbs such as white leaf, achiote, lemon and at the lowest level, commonly used herbs, but only in small areas which receive the sun’s rays.

Tree species are fundamental to the structure of home gardens (^{Gliessman, 2002}), increasing species diversity and abundance, and fulfilling environmental, social, cultural, economic, nutritional, ornamental, and medicinal functions, among others (^{Hylander and Nemomisa, 2008}). Trees are an integral component of these systems; they are planted and allowed to exist in home gardens as extra food. 42.62% of the stratum is used for this purpose, and the fruit represents a food source (^{White-Olascoaga et al., 2017}).

Regarding the demonstration garden, the tabasco and costeno rojo pepper seedlings were sold to community producers, as these are economically important crops in the region (^{García-Palomares, 2010}). Tomato production also generated greatest income. In the 132 m² garden, profits increased, contributing to family income and food security, as they include crops for personal consumption with sale of surplus (^{Cahuich-Campos, 2012}).

According to the data obtained, establishment of small gardens generates income for families and reduces living costs. The challenge is to foster production systems that support greater access for low-income families, geared towards meeting future food needs (^{García-Flores et al., 2016}).

The highest monthly income for a family was $3,294.00 and the cost of living for vegetable consumption was $1,992.00, which indicates that families spend 68% of their income on the purchase of fruits, vegetables and greens and the rest is to cover their other needs, meaning that income from garden products is not sufficient to cover the family’s requirements.

However, by taking advantage of the plant species in their gardens and implementing the 132 m² vegetable production module, they can obtain an average monthly income of $1,801.00. This implies savings of up to 90% of the resources allocated to the acquisition of vegetables and a savings of 55% in their direct monthly income; these data concur with records from Calpan, Puebla, where the average annual economic contribution made by the family garden was $14,400.00 (López-González et al., 2019); however it has also been shown that with more years of intervention, biointensive gardens can increase their production from 20 to 40% (^{Bonilla-Aparicio et al., 2013}).

Among ethnic groups (Peninsular Maya, Choles, and Mestizos) in the state of Campeche, home gardens have been reported to contribute between 12.40% and 18% of family income (^{Chi-Quej, 2009}). Likewise, gardens in Cárdenas and Tabasco have registered incomes of between $150.00 and $450.00 per week and economic savings of between $100.00 and $250.00 per week (^{Gómez, 2010}). In Honduras, the economic contribution of gardens varies between 10% and 26%, whereas in Nicaragua, it averages 35%. In general, family gardens generate monetary contributions ranging from 10% to 100%, which can be significant for household economies (^{Pulido et al., 2008}).

CONCLUSIONS

Family gardens in communities represent the family’s productive unit. Their management is based on environmental knowledge, experience in cultivating plant species, and family food requirements. These are expressed in the agro-ecological attributes of species richness with nutritional, medicinal, condiment, and ornamental value and for use as posts and live fences, which translate into environmental, economic, social, and cultural benefits.

The gardens studied usually include empty, uncultivated spaces, one reason being that they constitute poor areas that lack organic matter and have become impoverished because prior to becoming gardens, they were livestock farms. Under current conditions, the family garden does not fully cover families’ food needs, as they spend 68% of their income on the fruits and vegetables they consume. However, by implementing a 132 m² vegetable garden, they can produce an average monthly income of $1,801.00, implying savings of up to 90% of the resources allocated to the purchase of fruits and vegetables and a savings of 55% on their total monthly income.

Gardens are an essential part of a family’s economy, and their continued existence and enrichment should be encouraged, as their purpose is to provide fresh, low-cost food for the family and to serve as a supply of useful plants.