Information Search Process

A comprehensive review of scientific literature, technical reports, and strategic documents from international organizations, including the World Bank and the International Energy Agency, was conducted to identify and synthesize key information on core technologies and public policies related to EVs. This review supported the development of a solid conceptual foundation for the analysis, with a focus on technological advances and their connection to government strategies. Scientific literature was sourced from the Springer, MDPI, Emerald, and ScienceDirect databases.

The search was conducted using the following keywords: “electric vehicles and technological evolution,” “electric vehicles and public policy,” “batteries and technological evolution,” “charging infrastructure and technological evolution,” “leading countries and electric vehicles,” and “Mexico and electric vehicles.” These keywords were used in both English and Spanish to ensure broad and diverse coverage of relevant literature.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Studies and reports providing empirical data, verifiable evidence, and relevant case studies were included to examine the relationship between the evolution of key EV technologies and public policies aimed at promoting development and adoption. In contrast, opinion pieces lacking empirical support and publications not directly aligned with the objective of the study or the analytical categories were excluded.

Review Process

An initial screening was conducted based on article titles and abstracts. This was followed by a detailed review of full texts to assess relevance and quality. Selected studies were then analyzed and categorized according to thematic focus. The analysis centered on two main dimensions: 1) core technologies: battery evolution (types, advances in energy density, sustainability, and recycling) and charging infrastructure (fast charging, wireless charging, and integration with renewable energy); and 2) public policy: fiscal and financial incentives, environmental regulation, infrastructure development, and public-private collaboration mechanisms.

Country Selection

Seven countries leading EV adoption—Norway, China, Japan, the United States, Germany, France, and the Netherlands—were selected to identify patterns of success and contrast them with the Mexican context. This analysis made it possible to assess how public policies have shaped the development of core technologies and to determine which strategies can be replicated or adapted according to the institutional, technological, and infrastructure conditions of each country.

Synthesis of Information

The findings were incorporated into a critical synthesis that identifies stylized facts on EVs, connects them to broader patterns, and supports the formulation of recommendations to strengthen public policy and advance core technologies. This methodological design ensures a comprehensive and detailed review of the scientific literature consulted, providing a solid foundation for the conclusions and recommendations presented in the article.

Phase 1. Early Technologies and Prototypes (Before 2010)

During this stage, EVs were uncommon and were regarded more as a conceptual solution than a practical alternative to fossil fuel-based transportation. Research on environmentally friendly vehicles began in the 1970s, focusing on alternative energy sources to replace internal combustion engines (^{Shin and Lee, 2024}), although during the following decade battery research was constrained by technological and environmental limitations (^{He et al., 2022}). Between 1990 and 1997, automobile manufacturers concentrated on early iterations, including lead-acid and nickel-metal hydride batteries (^{Faria and Andersen, 2017}; ^{Liu et al., 2023}).

Faria and Andersen (2017) note that between 1998 and 2005, frustration with early EV experiences led to a shift toward fuel cell technologies. From 2006 to 2009, interest in electric and hybrid technologies reemerged, supported by technological progress and a clearer understanding of battery performance. During this period, energy storage systems remained underdeveloped, characterized by limited capacity and short lifespans (^{Shin & Lee, 2024}).

Regarding charging infrastructure, ^{Moustafa (2024}) identifies the period from 1993 to 2006 as an initial stage focused on establishing basic charging systems. Infrastructure remained largely undeveloped, and charging stations were limited to experimental applications, primarily in homes or research centers (^{Mizushima et al., 1980}). These early efforts were aimed at making EVs a viable alternative to conventional vehicles.

Phase 2. Commercial Expansion and Battery Improvements (2010-2015)

Commercial EV production began to gain momentum, particularly in developed markets such as Europe, the United States, and Japan. In 2010, the adoption of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries marked a major technological milestone for EVs (^{Shin & Lee, 2024}). This battery type emerged as the standard, offering higher energy density and significantly reducing vehicle weight, which represented a turning point in commercial viability (^{Dambros Telli et al., 2024}). By 2011, efforts also began to focus on battery recycling and to place greater emphasis on sustainability (^{Bründl et al., 2024}).

Li-ion batteries have driven the production and sales of EVs due to high energy density, long lifespan, and low self-discharge rates (^{Dambros Telli et al., 2024}; ^{Ortiz, 2024}). At the same time, the first networks of fast-charging stations began to emerge, supported by public policy initiatives such as the EV Everywhere program in the United States and incentive schemes in Europe (^{Ortiz, 2024}). However, energy storage systems remained at an experimental stage, with prototypes primarily focused on urban applications (^{Dall-Orsoletta et al., 2022}). This period represented an intermediate stage in the development of charging infrastructure (^{Moustafa, 2024}).

Phase 3. Consolidation and Mass Adoption (2016-2020)

During this period, EVs moved beyond a niche innovation and began to consolidate as a viable option for mass consumers. Technological progress in EV batteries accelerated, driven by two main factors: concerns over fossil fuel scarcity and efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This shift was supported by a significant decline in the cost of Li-ion batteries. At the same time, networks of fast and ultra-fast charging stations expanded across urban areas and major highways, improving accessibility and encouraging broader EV adoption. In parallel, energy storage systems based on second-life batteries were introduced, primarily for urban and renewable energy applications (^{Bründl et al., 2024}).

Phase 4. Innovation and Sustainability (2021-present)

Currently, technological innovation is increasingly focused on sustainability and the circular economy. In recent years, significant investments in research and development have targeted improvements in battery chemistry, energy density, and battery pack size. Emerging innovations, such as the use of graphene, are being explored to enhance storage capacity and reduce charging times (^{Mallick & Gayen, 2023}; ^{Sampson, 2024}; ^{Jabbar et al., 2024}).

Effective thermal management is also critical to limit battery degradation and extend operational life (^{Dambros et al., 2024}). In addition, ^{Dall-Orsoletta et al. (2022)} argue that batteries retaining more than 80% of capacity can be redeployed in urban electric mobility and renewable energy storage applications.

Charging infrastructure has evolved toward more advanced systems characterized by interoperability, higher charging speeds, and the emergence of wireless charging technologies (^{Shin & Lee, 2024}). At the same time, large-scale energy storage systems, such as second-life batteries integrated into smart grids, are playing an increasingly important role in the transition toward a more sustainable energy model (^{Dall-Orsoletta et al., 2022}).

Finally, advances in battery and charging technologies are fundamental to EV development, given the reliance on high-capacity batteries. Current next-generation battery technologies offer improvements in thermal efficiency, compact design, durability, and cost reduction (^{Itani & De Bernardinis, 2023}). In this regard, continuous progress in these components is critical to enhancing range, safety, and economic viability of EVs across different markets.

Key innovations in battery technology center on continuous improvements to enhance performance and lifespan through advances in battery chemistry, efforts to increase the amount of energy stored per unit of volume or weight (energy density), and the development of faster charging methods to improve convenience and reduce downtime (^{Sampson, 2024}; ^{Jabbar et al., 2024}; ^{Mallick & Gayen, 2023}; ^{Dall-Orsoletta et al., 2022}; ^{Greaker, 2021}).

Technological advances in charging infrastructure are associated with the development of smart charging services designed to optimize energy distribution and balance supply and demand through the use of local renewable energy (^{Shirley et al., 2022}), as well as dynamic inductive charging, which involves the exploration of dynamic charging lanes based on wireless inductive technology, characterized by higher initial costs and longer payback periods compared to conventional fast-charging stations (^{Suomalainen & Colet, 2019}).

At the same time, the expansion of EVs introduces new challenges for the energy sector, particularly as it contends with the complexities associated with implementing automation (^{Grzesiak and Sulich, 2023}). In addition, emerging technologies such as wireless charging and V2G (Vehicle-to-Grid) systems are reshaping charging infrastructure (^{Mo et al., 2022}), while the integration of IoT and artificial intelligence is creating new opportunities for the management and optimization of electric mobility (^{Kampker et al., 2022}).

According to ^{Raad et al. (2024)}, future developments will place greater emphasis on scalability and infrastructure planning to accommodate emerging innovations, such as faster charging technologies and extended vehicle range. Overall, the four phases in the evolution of core EV technologies reflect a cumulative pattern of knowledge and technological progress, rather than isolated periods of innovation, as illustrated in Table 1.

Based on the information presented in Table 1, several relevant trends can be identified in the evolution of key electric vehicle technologies, particularly in batteries and charging infrastructure, as well as in the increasing complexity of the systems associated with their development and adoption. These trends show that the advancement of both technologies has been progressive and closely interdependent over time. Likewise, they indicate that their evolution has responded not only to the need to improve the technical performance of electric vehicles, but also to the requirements of infrastructure, sustainability, and technological integration associated with their adoption:

1. Accelerated evolution and cumulative patterns: The evolution of EVs reflects a cumulative pattern, in which each technological phase builds upon previous advances in batteries and charging infrastructure. From early lead-acid batteries used in initial prototypes to solid-state batteries and emerging developments such as graphene-based applications aimed at improving energy density, sustainability, and cost reduction.

2. Charging infrastructure as a key factor: Charging infrastructure has evolved from basic and experimental systems (1993–2006) to fast and ultra-fast charging networks. Advances in interoperability and emerging technologies, such as wireless charging and intelligent systems, aim to optimize the user experience and reduce downtime.

3. Emphasis on sustainable innovation: In recent stages, research has prioritized sustainability, highlighting technologies such as solid-state batteries, the reuse of batteries in energy applications, and thermal management to extend component lifespan. These innovations aim to minimize the environmental impacts of electric vehicles.

4. Interaction between technological advances: Developments in batteries and charging infrastructure are closely interconnected, as battery capacity directly influences the demands on charging infrastructure, while innovations in fast and wireless charging drive adoption by improving accessibility and convenience.

5. Increasing technological complexity: The incorporation of technologies such as IoT, artificial intelligence, and V2G systems has added new layers of complexity, making electric vehicles not only a mechanical advancement but also an integral node within the modern energy grid.

1. Promotion of Technological Innovation Through Public Policies

a) Fiscal and financial incentives: Public policies have promoted the research and development of higher energy-density, recyclable, and more sustainable batteries through economic incentives targeted at firms and research centers. For example, in countries such as China and the United States, subsidies for battery manufacturing have accelerated technological innovation, reducing costs and improving market competitiveness (^{Ezell, 2024}; ^{Bai et al., 2025}; ^{IEA, 2025}; ^{Lombardo et al., 2025}).

b) Environmental regulations: Strict regulations on greenhouse gas emissions have encouraged the transition toward electric vehicles. These policies have supported both the production of advanced batteries and the development of electric charging networks in key regions.

2. Charging Infrastructure: A Key Pillar for Adoption

a) Development of public and private charging networks: Public policies have facilitated the expansion of charging infrastructure through direct investments in fast and ultra-fast charging stations, as well as through public-private partnerships. This has enabled cities and major highways to achieve increasingly extensive coverage, improving the user experience.

b) Interoperability standards: In countries such as Norway and Germany, policies have promoted interoperability among different charging providers, facilitating the integration of technologies such as smart charging and V2G systems.

3. Technological-policy Convergence for Mass Adoption

a) Cost reduction and accessibility: Government support through economic incentives and industrial policies has significantly reduced the costs of batteries (such as lithium-ion batteries) and charging infrastructure, making them more accessible to end users.

b) Circular economy and sustainability: Policies focused on battery recycling and reuse, such as those implemented in Germany, have established regulatory frameworks that ensure the sustainability of the technologies involved. This not only reinforces the social acceptance of EVs but also drives investment in cleaner and more efficient technologies.

In summary, public policies have been an essential catalyst for the development of the core technologies of electric vehicles by aligning technological objectives with sustainability and emissions reduction goals. However, the success of these policies depends on their ability to adapt to local contexts and to foster collaboration between the public and private sectors.

Factors Influencing and Challenges in Policy Transfer

The success of policy transfer depends on several factors. One of the most important is the ideological and institutional compatibility between the country of origin and the recipient. For example, policies that have been effective in Norway may not be suitable for Mexico without adjustments, due to differences in economic capacity and infrastructure. Another key factor is resource availability, since implementing charging stations or subsidies for EVs, for instance, requires investment that must be appropriately prioritized. However, policy transfer also faces several challenges. Uninformed transfer can lead to policies being misunderstood or implemented without proper consideration of the local context. Incomplete transfer may omit key elements, thereby weakening effectiveness. Finally, inappropriate transfer occurs when adopted policies do not adequately respond to the needs of the new context.

Application of Policy Transfer to the Case of Mexico

To promote electromobility in Mexico, it is essential to learn from successful policies implemented in other countries, adapting them to local conditions. For example, charging infrastructure in China and fiscal incentives in Norway are models that can help guide the transition in Mexico. However, these policies must be adjusted to reflect socioeconomic inequality in the country.

Mexico should also consider negotiated transfer, involving key stakeholders such as automobile manufacturers, state governments, and energy companies to develop coherent policies. In addition, drawing inspiration from elements implemented in other contexts can foster innovation, such as the design of educational campaigns on the environmental impact of EVs. Table 3 summarizes the main modalities of policy transfer and their specific application in Mexico.

Policy transfer in electromobility represents a strategic opportunity for Mexico to move toward a more sustainable model aligned with its international commitments. However, this process must be guided by a rigorous analysis of the modalities, factors, and challenges involved, ensuring context-specific adaptation that maximizes its impact. Adopting a comprehensive approach that combines incentives, infrastructure, and social engagement can position Mexico as a regional leader in the transition to electric vehicles.

Stylized Fact 1. Common Trends in Technological Evolution

Research on batteries and wireless or fast-charging systems remains a constant in technological advancement, while technologies such as V2G charging stand out as emerging innovations in several countries. In this regard, progress in battery development and charging technologies is central to the advancement of electromobility. Mexico could focus on adapting and adopting these technologies, seeking to integrate energy storage and generation capacities into EV systems.

Stylized Fact 2. Diversity of Public Policy Approaches Across Contexts

Leading countries (Germany, the United States, China, Norway, among others) adopt diversified policy approaches that reflect both environmental and economic objectives; however, each country relies on mechanisms tailored to its socioeconomic conditions and policy priorities. For example:

In general, the pattern underscores economic incentives, environmental regulations, and charging infrastructure as shared policy pillars; however, each country tailors these instruments to its political and economic context. This suggests that Mexico should design policies responsive to its economic conditions and infrastructure constraints.

Stylized Fact 3. The Importance of Charging Infrastructure as a Key Barrier or Enabler

Charging infrastructure is a recurring factor in the adoption of electric vehicles. Countries such as China and the United States have invested heavily in expanding charging networks to complement EV adoption incentives, whereas Mexico still faces limitations in this area. Charging infrastructure is critical and largely determines the feasibility of large-scale EV adoption. In contexts where infrastructure is insufficient, fiscal incentives and regulatory measures alone are not enough to drive uptake. This constitutes a key consideration for the development of electromobility in Mexico.

Stylized Fact 4. Differences in Policy Rationales for Promoting Electric Vehicles

In several countries, the adoption of electric vehicles is driven not only by environmental concerns but also by geopolitical and commercial considerations. ^{Freyssenet (2011)} suggests that EV adoption is linked both to strategic positioning and to the reduction of energy dependence, a pattern particularly evident in Europe and Asia. Electromobility, therefore, is justified differently across contexts: in Europe, it is primarily framed in terms of environmental sustainability and emissions reduction; in China, in addition to sustainability goals, it functions as an economic driver and a strategic effort to dominate the battery market. Mexico could orient its policies toward an economic growth strategy—particularly targeting the auto parts and manufacturing sectors—while integrating environmental objectives.

Stylized Fact 5. The Need for a Comprehensive and Multisectoral Approach

In countries with significant progress in electric vehicle adoption, collaboration among government, the automotive industry, the energy sector, and academia is essential. These actors play an active role in policy design as well as in the deployment of infrastructure and technology. Multisectoral integration and public-private collaboration are therefore critical. In Mexico, replicating this approach could facilitate the development of a more robust electromobility ecosystem, leveraging both domestic production potential and international partnerships.

Findings, Limitations, and Future Research Directions

Technological advances in lithium-ion batteries have been instrumental in consolidating electric vehicles as a viable alternative, driven by improvements in energy density, sustainability, and cost, developments largely supported by public policies oriented toward technological innovation. In parallel, charging infrastructure has evolved toward fast and intelligent systems, incorporating emerging technologies such as dynamic inductive charging and V2G. These innovations have been enabled by targeted subsidies and regulatory frameworks in leading countries such as Norway, China, the United States, and Germany.

However, in Mexico, although electrification programs and fiscal incentives have been implemented, charging infrastructure remains insufficient, and public policies are not fully aligned with technological needs or the characteristics of the domestic market, thereby constraining the scope of EV adoption. The interaction between technological advances and public policy has proven crucial for overcoming barriers such as high upfront battery costs and limited access to charging stations. However, this relationship remains uneven in lower-resource regions, where significant gaps persist and hinder the large-scale adoption of electric vehicles.

This study has several limitations that point to future research directions. On the one hand, the analysis of the Mexican context relies primarily on secondary sources, which constrains the depth of the local assessment. In addition, the absence of quantitative data limits the ability to measure the direct impact of public policies on core technologies. Finally, although batteries and charging infrastructure are examined, other complementary technologies, such as large-scale energy storage systems and their integration with renewable energy sources, are not explored in depth.

Among the proposed directions for future research is the development of regional assessments in Mexico to identify specific barriers related to infrastructure, financing, and the regulatory framework. It is also recommended to conduct quantitative studies that evaluate the impact of public policies on technological development and the adoption of electric vehicles. In addition, it is essential to examine the role of the circular economy through policies that promote battery recycling and reuse, as well as to encourage multisectoral collaboration among government, academia, and the private sector to strengthen strategies for a more effective and sustainable transition to electromobility.

In conclusion, the development of core technologies and associated public policies has been fundamental to the global advancement of electric vehicles. However, in Mexico, it is necessary to articulate strategic efforts to overcome existing barriers and capitalize on identified opportunities, adapting international lessons to the local context. These actions will be critical for consolidating a sustainable and competitive energy transition in the country.