<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>2448-4911</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Revista mexicana de opinión pública]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Rev. mex. opinión pública]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>2448-4911</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Facultad de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S2448-49112025000100096</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.22201/fcpys.24484911e.2025.38.89186</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Polarización. Un análisis conceptual]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Polarization. A Conceptual Analysis]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Avaro]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Dante]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="Af1">
<institution><![CDATA[,CONICET Centro de Conocimiento, Formación e Investigación en Estudios Sociales ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
<country>Argentina</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2025</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2025</year>
</pub-date>
<numero>38</numero>
<fpage>96</fpage>
<lpage>116</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S2448-49112025000100096&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S2448-49112025000100096&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S2448-49112025000100096&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[Resumen Este trabajo tiene como objetivo definir la polarización, destacando su relevancia en los contextos políticos modernos y los desafíos que plantea para la estabilidad democrática. El autor propone una definición de polarización como un equilibrio parcial entre la demanda y oferta polarizadora, donde los actores del centro luchan por atraer a los de los extremos mientras enfrentan dificultades para retener a los actores centristas. Esta conceptualización integra las perspectivas de polarización de élites y afectiva, contrastando nítidamente con el clivaje como su opuesto conceptual, y rechaza la noción de polarización aceptable.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[Abstract This work analyzes the concept of political polarization, its historical evolution, and its relevance in the current democratic context. It proposes a definition of polarization as a partial equilibrium between polarizing supply and demand, where centrist actors struggle to attract those at the extremes while facing difficulties in maintaining their position. The research contrasts polarization with the concept of cleavage, arguing that they are conceptual opposites. It concludes that polarization is always detrimental to democratic stability, rejecting the notion of &#8220;acceptable&#8221; polarization.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Polarización política]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[democracia]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[clivaje]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[estabilidad democrática]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[conflicto político]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Political polarization]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[democracy]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[cleavage]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[democratic stability]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[political conflict]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><back>
<ref-list>
<ref id="B1">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Abramowitz]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A. I.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Disappearing Center: Engaged Citizens, Polarization, and American Democracy]]></source>
<year>2010</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Yale University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B2">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Abramowitz]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A. I.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Disappearing Center]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Yale University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B3">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Axelrod]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Daymude]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. A.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Forrest]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Preventing Extreme Polarization of Political Attitudes]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[ArXiv: Multiagent Systems]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B4">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Baldassarri]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Gelman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Partisans without Constraint: Political Polarization and Trends in American Public Opinion]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[American Journal of Sociology]]></source>
<year>2008</year>
<volume>114</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<issue>2</issue>
<page-range>408-46</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B5">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Barber]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M. J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[McCarty]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[N.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Causes and Consequences of Polarization]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Persily]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[N.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Solutions to Political Polarization in America]]></source>
<year>2015</year>
<page-range>15-58</page-range><publisher-name><![CDATA[Cambridge University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B6">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Bartels]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L. M.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Unequal Democracy]]></source>
<year>2008</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Princeton University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B7">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Carothers]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[T.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[O&#8217;Donohue]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Democracies Divided: The Global Challenge of Political Polarization]]></source>
<year>2019</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Brookings Institution Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B8">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Coleman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P. T.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Way Out: How to Overcome Toxic Polarization]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Columbia University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B9">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Dahrendorf]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society]]></source>
<year>1959</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Stanford University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B10">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Dalton]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R. J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The Quantity and the Quality of Party Systems]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Comparative Political Studies]]></source>
<year>2008</year>
<volume>41</volume>
<numero>7</numero>
<issue>7</issue>
<page-range>899-920</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B11">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[DiMaggio]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Evans]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. H.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Bryson]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[B.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Have Americans&#8217; Social Attitudes Become More Polarized?]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[American Journal of Sociology]]></source>
<year>1996</year>
<volume>102</volume>
<numero>3</numero>
<issue>3</issue>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B12">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Downs]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[An Economic Theory of Democracy]]></source>
<year>1956</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Harper and Row]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B13">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Druckman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. N.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Levendusky]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M. S.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[What Do We Measure When We Measure Affective Polarization?]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Public Opinion Quarterly]]></source>
<year>2019</year>
<volume>83</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>114-22</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B14">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Druckman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. N.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Peterson]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Slothuus]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[How Elite Partisan Polarization Affects Public Opinion Formation]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The American Political Science Review]]></source>
<year>2013</year>
<volume>107</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>57-79</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B15">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Esteban]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. M.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ray]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[On the Measurement of Polarization. Econometrica]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Journal of the Econometric Society]]></source>
<year>1994</year>
<volume>62</volume>
<numero>4</numero>
<issue>4</issue>
<page-range>819-51</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B16">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Fiorina]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M. P.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Unstable Majorities. Party, Political Shorting &amp; Political Stalemate]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Hoover Institution Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B17">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Fiorina]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M. P.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Abrams]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S. J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Political Polarization in the American Public]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Annual Review of Political Science]]></source>
<year>2008</year>
<volume>11</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B18">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Fiorina]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M. P.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Abrams]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S. J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Pope]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. C.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Culture War? The Myth of a Polarized America]]></source>
<year>2004</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Longman]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B19">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Freund]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Noël]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Sofia]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[La Esencia de Lo Político]]></source>
<year>1968</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Editora Nacional]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B20">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Galtung]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Violence, Peace, and Peace Research]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Journal of Peace Research]]></source>
<year>1969</year>
<volume>6</volume>
<numero>3</numero>
<issue>3</issue>
<page-range>167-91</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B21">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Garrett]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[K. N.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Bankert]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The Moral Roots of Partisan Division: How Moral Conviction Heightens Affective Polarization]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[British Journal of Political Science]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
<volume>50</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<issue>2</issue>
<page-range>621-40</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B22">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Germani]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Estructura social de la Argentina]]></source>
<year>1955</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Raigal]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B23">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Germani]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Política y sociedad en una época de transición]]></source>
<year>1962</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Paidós]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B24">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Gunn]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[H.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lynch]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M. P.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The Internet and Epistemic Agency]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lackey]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Applied Epistemology]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<page-range>389-409</page-range><publisher-name><![CDATA[Oxford University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B25">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Hawkins]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[K. A.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rovira Kaltwasser]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The Ideational Approach to Populism]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Latin American Research Review]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<volume>52</volume>
<numero>4</numero>
<issue>4</issue>
<page-range>513-28</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B26">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Heersmink]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[A Virtue Epistemology of the Internet: Search Engines, Intellectual Virtues and Education]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Social Epistemology]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>32</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>1-12</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B27">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Hetherington]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M. J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Putting Polarization in Perspective]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[British Journal of Political Science]]></source>
<year>2009</year>
<volume>39</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<issue>2</issue>
<page-range>413-48</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B28">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Hetherington]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M. J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Weiler]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Prius or Pickup?: How the Answers to Four Simple Questions Explain America&#8217;s Great Divide]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[HarperCollins]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B29">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Huddy]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mason]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Aarøe]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Expressive Partisanship: Campaign Involvement, Political Emotion, and Partisan Identity]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The American Political Science Review]]></source>
<year>2015</year>
<volume>109</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>1-17</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B30">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Iyengar]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lelkes]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Y.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Levendusky]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Malhotra]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[N.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Westwood]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S. J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Annual Review of Political Science (Palo Alto, Calif.)]]></source>
<year>2019</year>
<volume>22</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>129-46</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B31">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Iyengar]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Sood]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lelkes]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Y.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Affect, Not Ideology]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Public Opinion Quarterly]]></source>
<year>2012</year>
<volume>76</volume>
<numero>3</numero>
<issue>3</issue>
<page-range>405-31</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B32">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Kamarck]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E. C.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Solutions to Polarization]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Persily]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[N.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Solutions to Political Polarization in America]]></source>
<year>2015</year>
<page-range>96-103</page-range><publisher-name><![CDATA[Cambridge University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B33">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Klein]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Why We&#8217;re Polarized]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Avid Reader Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B34">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Layman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G. C.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Carsey]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[T. M.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Horowitz]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. M.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Party Polarization In American Politics: Characteristics, Causes, and Consequences]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Annual Review]]></source>
<year>2006</year>
<volume>9</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B35">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lelkes]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Y.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Mass Polarization: Manifestations and Measurements]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Public Opinion Quarterly]]></source>
<year>2016</year>
<volume>80</volume>
<numero>S1</numero>
<issue>S1</issue>
<page-range>392-410</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B36">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lelkes]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Y.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Sean J.]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Westwood]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The Limits of Partisan Prejudice]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The Journal of Politics]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<volume>79</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<issue>2</issue>
<page-range>485-501</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B37">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Levitsky]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ziblatt]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Cómo Mueren Las Democracias]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Ariel]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B38">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Levy]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[N.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Bad Beliefs: Why They Happen to Good People]]></source>
<year>2022</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Oxford University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B39">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lipset]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S. M.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rokkan]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Cleavage Structures, Party Systems, and Voter Alignments: An Introduction]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lipset]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S. M.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rokkan]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Party Systems and Voter Alignments]]></source>
<year>1967</year>
<page-range>1-64</page-range><publisher-name><![CDATA[The Free Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B40">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lipset]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S. M.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics]]></source>
<year>1960</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Doubleday &amp; Company]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B41">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mackie]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong]]></source>
<year>1990</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Penguin Adult]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B42">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mason]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8216;I Disrespectfully Agree&#8217;: The Differential Effects of Partisan Sorting on Social and Issue Polarization]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[American Journal of Political Science]]></source>
<year>2015</year>
<volume>59</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>128-45</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B43">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mason]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Uncivil Agreement: How Politics Became Our Identity]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[University of Chicago Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B44">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[McCarty]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[N. M.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Poole]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[K. T.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rosenthal]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[H.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Polarized America]]></source>
<year>2006</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[MIT Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B45">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[McCauley]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Moskalenko]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Mechanisms of Political Radicalization: Pathways toward Terrorism]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Terrorism and Political Violence]]></source>
<year>2008</year>
<volume>20</volume>
<numero>3</numero>
<issue>3</issue>
<page-range>415-33</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B46">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[McCoy]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rahman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[T.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Somer]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Polarization and the Global Crisis of Democracy: Common Patterns, Dynamics, and Pernicious Consequences for Democratic Polities]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The American Behavioral Scientist]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>62</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>16-42</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B47">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[McCoy]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Somer]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Toward a Theory of Pernicious Polarization and How It Harms Democracies: Comparative Evidence and Possible Remedies]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science]]></source>
<year>2019</year>
<volume>681</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>234-71</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B48">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Morlino]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Raniolo]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[F.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Impact of the Economic Crisis on South European Democracies]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Springer International Publishing]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B49">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mudde]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rovira Kaltwasser]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Studying Populism in Comparative Perspective: Reflections on the Contemporary and Future Research Agenda]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Comparative Political Studies]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>51</volume>
<numero>13</numero>
<issue>13</issue>
<page-range>1667-93</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B50">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Nelimarkka]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rancy]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. P.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Grygiel]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Semaan]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[B.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[(Re)Design to Mitigate Political Polarization: Reflecting Habermas Ideal Communication Space in the United States of America and Finland]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction]]></source>
<year>2019</year>
<volume>3</volume>
<numero>141</numero>
<issue>141</issue>
<page-range>1-25</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B51">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Norris]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Inglehart]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Cultural Backlash: Trump, Brexit, and Authoritarian Populism]]></source>
<year>2019</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Cambridge University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B52">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Parsons]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[T.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Voting and the Equilibrium of the American Political System]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Burdick]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Brodbeck]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A. J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[American Voting Behavior]]></source>
<year>1959</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Free Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B53">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Parsons]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[T.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Politics and Social Structure]]></source>
<year>1969</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Free Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B54">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Prior]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Media and Political Polarization]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Annual Review of Political Science (Palo Alto, Calif.)]]></source>
<year>2013</year>
<volume>16</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>101-27</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B55">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Przeworski]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Las crisis de la democracia: ¿Adónde pueden llevarnos el desgaste institucional y la polarización?]]></source>
<year>2022</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Siglo XXI Editores]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B56">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Przeworski]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rivero]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Xi]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[T.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Elections as a Conflict Processing Mechanism]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[European Journal of Political Economy]]></source>
<year>2015</year>
<volume>39</volume>
<page-range>235-48</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B57">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rogowski]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. C.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Sutherland]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. L.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[How Ideology Fuels Affective Polarization]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Political Behavior]]></source>
<year>2016</year>
<volume>38</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<issue>2</issue>
<page-range>485-508</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B58">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Strickler]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Deliberate with the Enemy? Polarization, Social Identity, and Attitudes toward Disagreement]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Political Research Quarterly]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>71</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>3-18</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B59">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Sartori]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Parties and Party Systems: A Framework for Analysis]]></source>
<year>2005</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[ECPR Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B60">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Schedler]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A. P.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Rethinking Political Polarization]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Political Science Quarterly]]></source>
<year>2023</year>
<volume>138</volume>
<numero>3</numero>
<issue>3</issue>
<page-range>335-59</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B61">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Simpson]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Polarization and the Politics of Resentment]]></source>
<year>2022</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[University of Illinois Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B62">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Sodoma]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[K. A.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Sharp]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Democratic Empathy and Affective Polarization in Advance]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Social Philosophy Today]]></source>
<year>2022</year>
<volume>39</volume>
<page-range>71-87</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B63">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Somer]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[McCoy]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Déjà vu? Polarization and Endangered Democracies in the 21st Century]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The American Behavioral Scientist]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>62</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>3-15</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B64">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Stewart]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A. J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[McCarty]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[N.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Bryson]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Polarization under Rising Inequality and Economic Decline]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Science Advances]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
<numero>6</numero>
<issue>6</issue>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B65">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Stroud]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[N. J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Polarization and Partisan Selective Exposure]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The Journal of Communication]]></source>
<year>2010</year>
<volume>60</volume>
<numero>3</numero>
<issue>3</issue>
<page-range>556-76</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B66">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Sunstein]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C. R.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[#Republic: Divided Democracy in the Age of Social Media]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Princeton University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B67">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Talisse]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R. B.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Problems of Polarization]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Edenberg]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Hannon]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Political Epistemology]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<page-range>209-25</page-range><publisher-name><![CDATA[Oxford University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B68">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Webster]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S. W.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Abramowitz]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A. I.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The Ideological Foundations of Affective Polarization in the U.S. Electorate]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[American Politics Research]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<volume>45</volume>
<numero>4</numero>
<issue>4</issue>
<page-range>621-47</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B69">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Westfall]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Van Boven]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Chambers]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. R.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Judd]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C. M.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Perceiving Political Polarization in the United States: Party Identity Strength and Attitude Extremity Exacerbate the Perceived Partisan Divide]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science]]></source>
<year>2015</year>
<volume>10</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<issue>2</issue>
<page-range>145-58</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B70">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Wright]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C. J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Cullum]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Schwab]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[N.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The Cognitive and Affective Dimensions of Moral Conviction: Implications for Attitudinal and Behavioral Measures of Interpersonal Tolerance]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin]]></source>
<year>2008</year>
<volume>34</volume>
<numero>11</numero>
<issue>11</issue>
<page-range>1461-76</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
</ref-list>
</back>
</article>
