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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0034-8376</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Revista de investigación clínica]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Rev. invest. clín.]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0034-8376</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0034-83762005000500011</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Recomendaciones para el tratamiento médico de la artritis reumatoide]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Recommendations for the medical treatment of rheumatoid artritis]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Díaz-Jouanen]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Efraín]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Abud-Mendoza]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Carlos]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A02"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Garza-Elizondo]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Mario Alberto]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A03"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Medrano-Ramírez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Gabriel]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A04"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Orozco-Alcalá]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J Javier]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A05"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Pacheco-Tena]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[César Francisco]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A06"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Pineda-Villaseñor]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Carlos]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A07"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Pozos-Espíndola]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Juan Carlos]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A08"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ramos-Niembro]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Francisco]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A09"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Robles-San Román]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Manuel]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A10"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Santana-Sahagúnim]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Ernesto J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A11"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A02">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí Facultad de Medicina Hospital General]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A03">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León Facultad de Medicina ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A04">
<institution><![CDATA[,Hospital General de México Servicio de Reumatología ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A05">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad de Guadalajara  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A06">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua Facultad de Medicina ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A07">
<institution><![CDATA[,Instituto Nacional de Cardiología Ignacio Chávez Departamento de Reumatología ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A08">
<institution><![CDATA[,Grupo Médico Medici  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A09">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad Veracruzana Facultad de Medicina ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A10">
<institution><![CDATA[,Centro Médico Toluca  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A11">
<institution><![CDATA[,IMSS Hospital Regional 20 ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[Tijuana BC]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Hospital Angeles de las Lomas  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[Huixquilucan Edo. de México]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2005</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2005</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>57</volume>
<numero>5</numero>
<fpage>735</fpage>
<lpage>755</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0034-83762005000500011&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0034-83762005000500011&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0034-83762005000500011&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri></article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[ <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="4">Art&iacute;culo especial</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="4"><b>Recomendaciones para el tratamiento m&eacute;dico de la artritis reumatoide</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="3"><b>Recommendations for the medical treatment of rheumatoid artritis</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Efra&iacute;n D&iacute;az&#150;Jouanen,* Carlos Abud&#150;Mendoza,<img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11s1.jpg"> Mario Alberto Garza&#150;Elizondo,<img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11s2.jpg"> Gabriel Medrano&#150;Ram&iacute;rez,<img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11s3.jpg">J Javier Orozco&#150;Alcal&aacute; <img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11s4.jpg">C&eacute;sar Francisco Pacheco&#150;Tena,<img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11s5.jpg"> Carlos Pineda&#150;Villase&ntilde;or,** Juan Carlos Pozos&#150;Esp&iacute;ndola,<img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11s6.jpg"> Francisco Ramos&#150;Niembro,<img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11s7.jpg"> Manuel Robles&#150;San Rom&aacute;n,<img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11s8.jpg"> Ernesto J. Santana&#150;Sahag&uacute;nim<img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11s9.jpg"></b></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>* Grupo de Estudio de Nuevas Terapias en Enfermedades reum&aacute;ticas (GENTE). Facultad de Medicina UNAM. Maestro de la Reumatolog&iacute;a, distinci&oacute;n otorgada por el Colegio Mexicano de Reumatolog&iacute;a. Miembro del Colegio Mexicano de Reumatolog&iacute;a.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i><img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11s1.jpg">Unidad Regional de Reumatolog&iacute;a y Osteoporosis. Hospital General, Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad Aut&oacute;noma de San Luis Potos&iacute;. Miembro del Colegio Mexicano de Reumatolog&iacute;a.</i></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i><img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11s2.jpg"> Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad Aut&oacute;noma de Nuevo Le&oacute;n y Hospital Universitario Jos&eacute; E. Gonz&aacute;lez de Monterrey. Miembro del Colegio Mexicano de Reumatolog&iacute;a.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i><img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11s3.jpg"> Servicio de Reumatolog&iacute;a del Hospital General de M&eacute;xico, OD. Miembro del Colegio Mexicano de Reumatolog&iacute;a.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i><img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11s4.jpg"> Universidad de Guadalajara. Miembro del Colegio Mexicano de Reumatolog&iacute;a.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i><img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11s5.jpg"> Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad Aut&oacute;noma de Chihuahua. Hospital Central del Estado. Miembro del Colegio Mexicano de Reumatolog&iacute;a.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>** Departamento de Reumatolog&iacute;a del Instituto Nacional de Cardiolog&iacute;a Ignacio Ch&aacute;vez. Miembro del Colegio Mexicano de Reumatolog&iacute;a.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i><img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11s6.jpg"> Grupo M&eacute;dico Medici. Miembro del Colegio Mexicano de Reumatolog&iacute;a.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i><img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11s7.jpg"> Facultad de Medicina. Universidad Veracruzana. Miembro del Colegio Mexicano de Reumatolog&iacute;a.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i><img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11s8.jpg" width="16" height="14"> Centro M&eacute;dico Toluca. Miembro del Colegio Mexicano de Reumatolog&iacute;a.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i><img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11s9.jpg"> Hospital Regional 20 IMSS, Tijuana, BC. University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, EUA. Miembro del Colegio Mexicano de Reumatolog&iacute;a.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Reimpresos:</b><i>    <br>   </i><i>Dr. Efra&iacute;n D&iacute;as&#150;Jouanen<b>    <br>   </b>Hospital Angeles de las Lomas    <br>   Vialidad de la Barranca s/n interior 860    <br>   52763 Huixquilucan, Edo. de M&eacute;xico    <br>   Tel: 5246&#150;9584</i>    <br>   Correo electr&oacute;nico: <a href="mailto:monica.ledesma@abbott.com">monica.ledesma@abbott.com</a></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>INTRODUCCI&Oacute;N</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La artritis reumatoide (AR), centro de esta comunicaci&oacute;n, es el paradigma, el prototipo de enfermedad reum&aacute;tica inflamatoria y se le reconoce adem&aacute;s la tendencia natural, aunque no absoluta, para conducir a discapacidad e incapacidad f&iacute;sica variables en intensidad, pero siempre importante. Esta publicaci&oacute;n est&aacute; orientada esencialmente al tratamiento m&eacute;dico de la artritis reumatoide del adulto; por eso es pertinente describir en breve al lector la enfermedad en s&iacute; y el problema de salud que representa.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La AR es una enfermedad inflamatoria sist&eacute;mica que afecta aproximadamente a 1% de la poblaci&oacute;n adulta, en la edad en la que se alcanza la madurez y el crecimiento; se presenta dos a tres veces m&aacute;s en las mujeres que en los hombres. Sus caracter&iacute;sticas son la sinovitis poliarticular sim&eacute;trica, de curso m&aacute;s com&uacute;nmente progresivo hacia destrucci&oacute;n del cart&iacute;lago y del hueso, que da por resultado deformidad y reducci&oacute;n de la capacidad funcional igualmente creciente que llega incluso a la invalidez. Este da&ntilde;o articular, evidentemente relacionado con la sinovitis, se inicia desde las primeras etapas de la enfermedad y la lesi&oacute;n anat&oacute;mica es paralela en su evoluci&oacute;n hacia la limitaci&oacute;n funcional.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Una proporci&oacute;n grande de los pacientes desarrolla limitaciones funcionales y la mitad de todos ellos pierde capacidad de trabajo dentro de los primeros diez a&ntilde;os de evoluci&oacute;n de la enfermedad, con consecuencias socioecon&oacute;micas mayores que se a&ntilde;aden como factores de deterioro al problema de salud como tal influyendo tambi&eacute;n en la calidad de vida. Adem&aacute;s, la AR puede acortar la expectativa de vida en tres a 18 a&ntilde;os.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La evoluci&oacute;n y las consecuencias de la enfermedad han llamado la atenci&oacute;n de los profesionales de la salud hacia la necesidad imperiosa de que el tratamiento sea temprano y tan agresivo como la enfermedad lo demanda. Este problema de salud es potencialmente modificable y en la actualidad los recursos para modificar el curso de la enfermedad han progresado sustancialmente de manera importante al conocerse mejor su patog&eacute;nesis.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Si se toma en cuenta lo anteriormente expuesto y se considera que en nuestro medio a&uacute;n no se tiene claramente estructurado cu&aacute;l es el manejo terap&eacute;utico &oacute;ptimo de la artritis reumatoide, el Grupo de Estudio de Nuevas Terapias en Enfermedades reum&aacute;ticas (GENTE) decidi&oacute; despu&eacute;s de <i>analizar, </i>revisar y estudiar los lineamientos internacionales reconocidos como los m&aacute;s eficaces, exponer a la comunidad m&eacute;dica nacional, la importancia de tener una serie de conceptos generales para el tratamiento de esta enfermedad, potencialmente catastr&oacute;fica, as&iacute; como proponer recomendaciones que sean &uacute;tiles para el manejo oportuno y eficaz del padecimiento.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El objetivo ha sido aplicar en nuestros pacientes lo mejor de los recursos disponibles en la actualidad con la finalidad de lograr la remisi&oacute;n completa o parcial de la enfermedad. Bajo este concepto, se describen los elementos id&oacute;neos para el inicio de un tratamiento adecuado, fundamentados en un diagn&oacute;stico oportuno y temprano del padecimiento y tomando en cuenta diversas modalidades terap&eacute;uticas en las que se incluyen el tratamiento intensivo desde el diagn&oacute;stico inicial, el abordaje de formas refractarias de la enfermedad y el uso de agentes biol&oacute;gicos como son los inhibidores del factor de necrosis tumoral; se discuten, en fin, los aspectos m&aacute;s importantes para considerar el uso de medios terap&eacute;uticos ya existentes y de estas nuevas terapias.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>ARTRITIS REUMATOIDE TEMPRANA</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El dolor, la rigidez y la inflamaci&oacute;n poliarticular son las principales manifestaciones cl&iacute;nicas de la artritis reumatoide (AR). Dichas manifestaciones son a menudo tratadas tan s&oacute;lo de manera sintom&aacute;tica aunque siempre debe pretenderse el control eficaz y consistente de los s&iacute;ntomas mediante f&aacute;rmacos antirreum&aacute;ticos modificadores de la enfermedad (FARME). El retraso en el empleo oportuno de los FARME se asocia com&uacute;nmente con la m&aacute;s r&aacute;pida progresi&oacute;n del da&ntilde;o articular y con un desenlace poco favorable a mediano y largo plazos.<sup>1</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La terapia con agentes biol&oacute;gicos se ha posicionado r&aacute;pidamente en el &aacute;rea de la Reumatologia como una herramienta de gran valor para el manejo de enfermedades autoinmunes. Existe suficiente evidencia para considerar a la AR como una enfermedad autoinmune de tal agresividad que puede llegar a ocasionar destrucci&oacute;n y deformidad articulares e incapacidad funcional en etapas tempranas y conducir a la invalidez en etapas tard&iacute;as.<sup>1</sup> En este sentido, es importante destacar que los pacientes con AR poliarticular y factor reumatoide positivo tienen 70% de probabilidades de desarrollar erosiones y da&ntilde;o articular durante los primeros dos a&ntilde;os de evoluci&oacute;n.<sup>2&#150;</sup><sup>6</sup> Adem&aacute;s, la AR disminuye la expectativa de vida<sup>7&#150;</sup><sup>9</sup> con tasas de mortalidad semejantes a las observadas en la enfermedad de Hodgkin, la diabetes mellitus y la enfermedad cerebrovascular.<sup>10</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Por tal motivo, es muy importante establecer un diagn&oacute;stico temprano de la AR y no retrasar el tratamiento con los FARME para inducir la remisi&oacute;n cl&iacute;nica,<sup>11,12</sup> pues existe evidencia de que en los enfermos con diagn&oacute;stico de AR de inicio reciente y manejo temprano con FARME se modifica favorablemente el curso de la historia natural de la enfermedad.<sup>13&#150;17</sup> El <a href="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11c1.jpg" target="_blank">cuadro 1</a> resume los FARME considerados a la fecha como convencionales y los agentes biol&oacute;gicos actualmente disponibles (<a href="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11c1.jpg" target="_blank">Cuadro 1</a>).</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Un retraso de semanas o meses en el inicio de los FARME, en especial durante los dos o tres primeros a&ntilde;os de la enfermedad, se acompa&ntilde;a de una menor calidad y magnitud de respuesta.<sup>18</sup> En contraste, con el uso de terapia con agentes biol&oacute;gicos efectivos y capaces de inducir una mayor reducci&oacute;n (y aun supresi&oacute;n) de la inflamaci&oacute;n articular, se han obtenido mejores y m&aacute;s satisfactorios resultados.<sup>19</sup> Los datos disponibles con agentes biol&oacute;gicos inhibidores del factor de necrosis tumoral alfa (TNFa, de las siglas en ingl&eacute;s para Tumor Necrosis Factor) en la AR temprana demuestran evidente eficacia en el corto, mediano y largo plazos.<sup>20&#150;</sup><sup>25</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La indicaci&oacute;n de FARME y terapia con agentes biol&oacute;gicos en pacientes con AR que re&uacute;nen los criterios de clasificaci&oacute;n de la American Rheumatism Association (ARA) 1987 revisados en 1998 por el American College of Rheumatology (ACR)<sup>26</sup> es muy clara y no plantean duda alguna; sin embargo, existe un grupo de pacientes que tienen poliartritis persistente durante 12 a 14 semanas de su evoluci&oacute;n, que no cumplen esos criterios de clasificaci&oacute;n y que probablemente est&eacute;n en las fases iniciales de la AR. Se asume que en este subgrupo de pacientes debe fundamentarse el diagn&oacute;stico cl&iacute;nico con hechos de laboratorio e imagen, como son los anticuerpos contra p&eacute;ptidos c&iacute;clicos citrulinados, el ultrasonido de alta resoluci&oacute;n y las im&aacute;genes por resonancia magn&eacute;tica de las peque&ntilde;as articulaciones de las manos; adem&aacute;s, ajuicio del reumat&oacute;logo tambi&eacute;n debieran ser incluidos en el manejo con <a href="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11f1.jpg" target="_blank">FARME y terapia biol&oacute;gica</a>. Sin embargo, la mayor objeci&oacute;n al tratamiento temprano es la posibilidad de tratar como AR a pacientes con poliartritis transitoria, aun cuando una poliartritis que persiste m&aacute;s de 12 a 14 semanas tiene una alta probabilidad de evolucionar hacia la cronicidad.<sup>27,28</sup> Por ello, aunque no re&uacute;nan los multimencionados criterios de clasificaci&oacute;n para AR debe considerarse que se trata de las fases iniciales de una AR, m&aacute;s aun si son positivos al factor reumatoide o si cuentan con la presencia de otros autoanticuerpos;<sup>29</sup> en estos pacientes estar&iacute;a justificado plenamente iniciar tratamiento con FARME y con agentes biol&oacute;gicos.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Por lo tanto, el inicio temprano de FARME incluyendo con oportunidad los agentes biol&oacute;gicos desde las etapas iniciales de la AR, contribuir&aacute; decisivamente a conseguir la remisi&oacute;n e impedir la progresi&oacute;n del da&ntilde;o articular.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">De lo anteriormente expuesto, dedujimos las recomendaciones que se resumen en los <a href="#c2">cuadros 2</a> y <a href="#c3">3</a>.</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><a name="c2"></a></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11c2.jpg"></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><a name="c3"></a></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11c3.jpg"></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>FACTORES PRON&Oacute;STICOS EN LA ARTRITIS REUMATOIDE</b></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La artritis reumatoide (AR) condiciona discapacidad e incapacidad y elevada morbimortalidad. Hay factores asociados a peor pron&oacute;stico, que de manera sucinta se discuten a continuaci&oacute;n y se resumen en el <a href="#c4">cuadro 4</a>.</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><a name="c4"></a></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><img src="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11c4.jpg"></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Gen&eacute;ticos</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Desde 1978 se encontr&oacute; relaci&oacute;n de la enfermedad con ciertas mol&eacute;culas expresadas en el complejo principal de histocompatibilidad (CPH) de clase II, &eacute;stas son HLA DR4<sup>1</sup> en la poblaci&oacute;n cauc&aacute;sica principalmente. Se han observado ciertas diferencias de estas mol&eacute;culas en las etnias, aunque la enfermedad sigue codificando en el CPH II; los haplotipos difieren y es as&iacute; como en asi&aacute;ticos, mexicanos, griegos e israelitas se han identificado otros HLA asociados (en esta &uacute;ltima poblaci&oacute;n se han observado DRB1 y DR4 (R = 0.556)<sup>2,3,29</sup> En otros estudios se encontr&oacute; asociaci&oacute;n de DR4 con la positividad para factor reumatoide y cambios radiogr&aacute;ficos graves, pero no hubo relaci&oacute;n entre la cuenta articular y el estado funcional;<sup>5</sup> tambi&eacute;n se ha observado asociaci&oacute;n del DR4 con la presencia de manifestaciones extraarticulares.<sup>6 </sup>En otros estudios en los que se han realizado haplotipos extendidos, se ha observado que particularmente DR4 asociado con DQw7 est&aacute; presente en un gran n&uacute;mero de pacientes con enfermedad grave.<sup>7</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">A pesar de estas asociaciones, algunos autores consideran que el valor predictivo para el uso del HLA como marcador de susceptibilidad gen&eacute;tica es bajo cuando se piensa usarlo como herramienta en la poblaci&oacute;n general, aunque esto cambia dram&aacute;ticamente cuando el an&aacute;lisis comprende pacientes con enfermedad temprana.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>G&eacute;nero</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Desde 1988 se ha considerado que el g&eacute;nero juega un papel muy importante en esta enfermedad; tras esto se ha definido en la mayor parte de ellos que el g&eacute;nero masculino tiene mejor pron&oacute;stico,<sup>1</sup> y s&oacute;lo un estudio ha demostrado lo contrario.<sup>18</sup> Recientemente se ha encontrado incremento en la expresi&oacute;n de receptores de estr&oacute;genos en el tejido sinovial inflamado, lo cual sugiere que los esteroides sexuales juegan un papel muy importante en la inflamaci&oacute;n del tejido sinovial en la artritis reumatoide.<sup>36</sup></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Edad</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En este sentido se han realizado revisiones en las cuales hasta ahora la edad no ha sido un factor que influya para mejor o peor pron&oacute;stico en cuanto a la gravedad de la enfermedad<sup>1</sup> aun cuando el pron&oacute;stico en cuanto a la mortalidad s&iacute; difiere y es mayor en la poblaci&oacute;n de mayor edad.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Tabaquismo</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En un estudio se determin&oacute; que la exposici&oacute;n al tabaco pudiera desencadenar la producci&oacute;n de factor reumatoide y que en interacci&oacute;n con el sexo masculino puede contribuir subsecuentemente al desarrollo de la AR.<sup>1A</sup> Sin embargo, otra publicaci&oacute;n m&aacute;s reciente,<sup>1B</sup> aunque apoya lo mismo e incluye a ambos sexos, considera que la artritis reumatoide en los fumadores siempre es seropositiva y el riesgo aumenta en forma directamente proporcional al tiempo del tabaquismo y permanece a&uacute;n varios a&ntilde;os despu&eacute;s de haber dejado de fumar.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Tipo de inicio de la enfermedad</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La forma de inicio de la enfermedad ha causado controversia, existiendo reportes que informan no tener relaci&oacute;n con el pron&oacute;stico y otros que reportan lo contrario.<sup>1,9</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>N&uacute;mero de articulaciones afectadas</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">A diferencia de las consideraciones previas, desde 1960 se ha definido que el n&uacute;mero de articulaciones dolorosas o inflamadas al inicio de la enfermedad est&aacute; relacionado con el desenlace: a mayor n&uacute;mero de articulaciones afectadas, peor es el pron&oacute;stico.<sup>10&#150;</sup><sup>14</sup> En el 2003 la base de datos de artritis temprana de Estados Unidos corrobora lo anterior.<sup>37</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Nodulos reumatoides</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los nodulos reumatoides son una manifestaci&oacute;n extraarticular de la enfermedad de la que hoy en d&iacute;a se sabe que est&aacute;n asociados a la positividad del factor reumatoide, sobre todo a t&iacute;tulos altos; se ha observado que su presencia est&aacute; asociada a mal pron&oacute;stico.<sup>1,6</sup> En estudios realizados en 1976 y en 1986 se ha tratado de definir la relaci&oacute;n de estos nodulos con el pron&oacute;stico informando que su presencia estuvo asociada con mayor n&uacute;mero de erosiones.<sup>15</sup> Al respecto es muy factible tomar al factor reumatoide como agente de confusi&oacute;n; al realizar regresi&oacute;n log&iacute;stica se encontr&oacute; al factor reumatoide como variable independiente, por lo que se puede definir que los nodulos reumatoides son m&aacute;s bien dependientes de t&iacute;tulos altos de factor reumatoide, sin considerar su presencia como factor pron&oacute;stico.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Reactantes de fase aguda</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Habitualmente se les utiliza para evaluar el seguimiento o bien como predictores de la enfermedad. En diversos estudios desde los a&ntilde;os 1970 se ha identificado que la velocidad de sedimentaci&oacute;n globular (VSG) correlaciona con enfermedad progresiva y por lo tanto con mal pron&oacute;stico.<sup>18</sup> Existen estudios en donde se ha encontrado que la VSG de m&aacute;s de 50 mm/h correlacion&oacute; con erosiones graves;<sup>16,19</sup> sin embargo, estudios posteriores no han demostrado esta asociaci&oacute;n, sino que m&aacute;s bien apoyan a la VSG y a la prote&iacute;na C reactiva (PCR) como marcadores de actividad de la enfermedad.<sup>1,17</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En un estudio de confrontaci&oacute;n entre VSG y PCR<sup>17A</sup> la comparaci&oacute;n simple sugiri&oacute; que estos dos elementos de evaluaci&oacute;n son similares; sin embargo, un an&aacute;lisis de correlaci&oacute;n entre ambas revel&oacute; que la PCR parece ser la mejor prueba como reactante de fase aguda aunque la VSG es sensible a inmunoglobulinas y factor reumatoide. Por lo tanto, esta &uacute;ltima pudiera medir gravedad de la enfermedad mejor que la PCR y por tal motivo en ese estudio se le consider&oacute; como pobre medidor de inflamaci&oacute;n. En conclusi&oacute;n, puesto que existen experiencias diversas, algunas contradictorias, y se carece de consenso, resulta v&aacute;lido considerar que en la pr&aacute;ctica ambos reactivos de fase aguda pueden dar m&aacute;s informaci&oacute;n que uno solo.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Erosiones</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Habitualmente las erosiones se utilizan como punto final de evaluaci&oacute;n dentro de la enfermedad; sin embargo, son tomadas en cuenta tambi&eacute;n como factor predictor de gravedad y actividad de la enfermedad, situaci&oacute;n que motiva a tener conductas m&aacute;s agresivas en el tratamiento cuando ocurren en el curso de la enfermedad.<sup>20,</sup><sup>21,</sup><sup>28,33 </sup>Del conjunto de los estudios se puede concretar que las erosiones de aparici&oacute;n temprana predicen un mal desenlace.<sup>1,20</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Factor reumatoide</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El factor reumatoide (FR) s&eacute;rico correlaciona con progresi&oacute;n de la enfermedad,<sup>6,12,16</sup> as&iacute; como con manifestaciones extraarticulares y erosiones.<sup>12</sup> Se ha observado que el FR del isotipo IgM correlacion&oacute; con erosiones articulares<sup>13</sup> comparado contra el grupo con FR negativo (92% <i>vs. </i>55%, respectivamente). Al parecer el isotipo del factor reumatoide tiene un papel relevante en la gravedad de la enfermedad; en 1992<sup>13</sup> aparece un estudio para investigar el curso cl&iacute;nico de la enfermedad buscando tres isotipos de FR, IgM, IgA e IgG en los pacientes y surgieren datos importantes como son en primer lugar que t&iacute;tulos altos de factor reumatoide persistentemente elevados correlacionaron con la presencia de erosiones y en segundo lugar que la positividad para FR IgA a tres a&ntilde;os de inicio de la enfermedad correlacion&oacute; con erosiones y puntaje de HAQ alto, as&iacute; como mayor inflamaci&oacute;n y mayor dolor articular.<sup>15,17,27</sup> En conclusi&oacute;n, el FR es uno de los par&aacute;metros que refleja la actividad de la enfermedad puesto que existe una relaci&oacute;n lineal entre la persistencia del FR y el da&ntilde;o radiogr&aacute;fico.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Anticuerpos antip&eacute;ptido c&iacute;clico citrulinado</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Existen varias generaciones de estos anticuerpos que est&aacute;n dirigidos en contra de un p&eacute;ptido circular que contiene amino&aacute;cidos no comunes llamados citrulina. Se ha observado que &eacute;stos aparecen de manera temprana en el curso de la artritis reumatoide. M&uacute;ltiples ensayos cl&iacute;nicos han demostrado una alta especificidad para AR (&gt; 90%) y sensibilidad moderada (&gt; 60%) aunque se ha determinado que pueden predecir enfermedad erosiva s&oacute;lo cuando se asocia a factor reumatoide del isotipo IgM o IgA.<sup>39</sup> La sensibilidad para el diagn&oacute;stico de AR se incrementa al procesar FR con anticuerpos antip&eacute;ptido c&iacute;clico citrulinado (anti&#150;CCP, de las siglas en ingl&eacute;s para anticitrulinated cyclic peptide).<sup>40</sup> Un punto relevante es que al parecer tiene un papel importante como marcador pron&oacute;stico de da&ntilde;o articular a nivel radiogr&aacute;fico.<sup>41</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Cabe mencionar que tambi&eacute;n ha sido mencionado como factor que parece predecir ser factor de riesgo para el desarrollo de artritis reumatoide.<sup>42</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>&Iacute;ndice de </b><b>masa </b><b>corporal</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En 2003 se public&oacute; un estudio en el que se determin&oacute; que el &iacute;ndice de masa corporal (IMC) influ&iacute;a tanto en la progresi&oacute;n radiogr&aacute;fica osteoarticular de la artritis reumatoide temprana como en la de largo curso cl&iacute;nico puesto que el IMC bajo (IMC &lt; 25) hab&iacute;a correlacionado con mayor da&ntilde;o articular radiogr&aacute;fico al inicio del estudio, as&iacute; como con la presencia de erosiones y valores elevados de reactantes de fase aguda (VSG, PCR).<sup>35</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Medidas del desenlace en la artritis reumatoide</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&bull; <b><i>Variables de confusi&oacute;n. </i></b>Dentro de la evaluaci&oacute;n de la enfermedad existen m&uacute;ltiples variables que pueden ser dependientes o independientes,   cuya  interpretaci&oacute;n  muchas  veces depende del juicio cl&iacute;nico. Pincus y Callahan han encontrado en un estudio con nueve a&ntilde;os de seguimiento, que el bajo nivel educativo correlaciona con disminuci&oacute;n en la funci&oacute;n y con mortalidad<sup>21</sup> y en otro estudio<sup>22</sup> con la participaci&oacute;n de Sale como coautor, se intent&oacute; correlacionar el estado psicol&oacute;gico del paciente con la actividad de la enfermedad sin resultados positivos; este &uacute;ltimo con tres a&ntilde;os de seguimiento en 30 pacientes con artritis reumatoide a quienes se realizaron pruebas psicol&oacute;gicas y mediciones de discapacidad.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Otro estudio llevado a cabo en 122 pacientes femeninos con artritis reumatoide utilizando regresi&oacute;n log&iacute;stica demostr&oacute; que variables como la capacidad para controlar las horas de trabajo y el apoyo familiar fueron factores que contribuyeron a mejorar la capacidad del paciente para trabajar.<sup>23</sup> Sin embargo, &eacute;stas m&aacute;s bien deben considerarse como variables de desenlace y no de pron&oacute;stico.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&bull; <b><i>Desenlace funcional. </i></b><i>En</i> un estudio se observ&oacute; que una mala clase funcional, la elevaci&oacute;n de VSG y el factor reumatoide positivo (&gt; 1:64) fueron predictores de mal pron&oacute;stico, aunque no se hizo an&aacute;lisis estad&iacute;stico.<sup>16 </sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Otro estudio realizado con seguimiento de 12 a&ntilde;os en pacientes con duraci&oacute;n de la artritis reumatoide de 7.4 a&ntilde;os y aplicando un an&aacute;lisis multivariado con regresi&oacute;n de COX se identific&oacute; que la edad, el &iacute;ndice funcional de discapacidad (FDI, de las siglas en ingl&eacute;s para Functional Discapacity &iacute;ndex) obtenido del HAQ, el dolor, la agresividad de la enfermedad y la depresi&oacute;n y evaluado por el Arthritis Impact Measurement Scales (en la primera evaluaci&oacute;n), predec&iacute;an un mal desenlace definiendo este punto como una disminuci&oacute;n en el FDI. En este estudio tanto el factor reumatoide como la educaci&oacute;n no correlacionaron con el desenlace.<sup>16</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En 2003 se public&oacute; un estudio para determinar los factores pron&oacute;sticos de discapacidad en artritis reumatoide temprana, as&iacute; como la afecci&oacute;n a escala radiogr&aacute;fica y el curso funcional de la enfermedad en pacientes con AR de menos de un a&ntilde;o de evoluci&oacute;n a quienes se les dio seguimiento durante cinco a&ntilde;os. Al final del estudio un HAQ alto correlacion&oacute; con dolor, con puntaje de actividad de la enfermedad (DAS, de las siglas en ingl&eacute;s para Disease Activity Score) elevado, con mayor cuenta de articulaciones dolorosas, as&iacute; como con reactantes de fase aguda elevados y la presencia de erosiones como factor independiente del HAQ; el sexo, la edad, as&iacute; como el factor reumatoide, isotipos IgA o IgM, as&iacute; como los genes clase II no contribuyeron significativamente a predecir la discapacidad a cinco a&ntilde;os.<sup>34 </sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Al a&ntilde;o siguiente, otra investigaci&oacute;n, como derivado de una revisi&oacute;n sistem&aacute;tica, concluye que parte del desenlace funcional en el trabajo depende de una desadaptaci&oacute;n biopsicosocial entre la capacidad del individuo y las demandas de trabajo.<sup>38</sup></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&bull; <i></i><b><i>Predictores de mortalidad. </i></b>Existen cuatro estudios realizados para evaluar mortalidad en pacientes con artritis reumatoide y seguimientos de ocho hasta 12 a&ntilde;os, y con un n&uacute;mero de pacientes de 75 hasta 805. Se comentan siguiendo el orden de aparici&oacute;n. En el primer estudio (1986) los principales predictores de mortalidad determinados fueron mala clase funcional de la AR, n&uacute;mero de articulaciones afectadas y la presencia de factor reumatoide (FR). En este estudio las causas de muerte fueron leucemia, linfomas, septicemias.<sup>25</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El segundo evalu&oacute; (1987) pacientes por un periodo de nueve a&ntilde;os, en este ensayo lo relevante fue que la edad al inicio de la enfermedad fue predictor de mortalidad, adicionalmente el nivel de educaci&oacute;n, cuenta articular, uso de glucocorticoides y la evaluaci&oacute;n del HAQ fueron los predictores m&aacute;s importantes. Cabe mencionar que no se evalu&oacute; la presencia de nodulos reumatoides ni de FR.<sup>14 </sup>En el tercero (1989), los predictores cl&iacute;nicos de mortalidad incluyeron &uacute;lceras cut&aacute;neas, vasculitis cut&aacute;nea, neuropat&iacute;a, escleritis y crioglobulinas positivas. En este grupo de pacientes, los infartos al miocardio, las neumon&iacute;as y las complicaciones gastrointestinales fueron las causas de muerte.<sup>24</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En el cuarto estudio (1991) se encontraron co&#150;variables como el uso de prednisona, edad, sexo masculino, soltero y desempleado como predictores de mortalidad.<sup>8</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>INICIO DEL TRATAMIENTO EN LA ARTRITIS REUMATOIDE</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En primer t&eacute;rmino se debe considerar que la AR es una enfermedad potencialmente catastr&oacute;fica que requiere de un manejo en&eacute;rgico una vez que se ha establecido el diagn&oacute;stico del padecimiento. El objetivo final de dicho tratamiento ser&aacute; intentar alcanzar una remisi&oacute;n de la enfermedad poniendo en juego los mejores recursos terap&eacute;uticos disponibles.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Una premisa muy importante para el tratamiento de la AR es iniciar el tratamiento de la enfermedad lo m&aacute;s temprano y agresivo posible; diversos estudios han ense&ntilde;ado que el tratamiento combinado tiene mejores resultados que la monoterapia<sup>1&#150;</sup><sup>3</sup> e incluso que la combinaci&oacute;n de tres FARME puede ser mejor que la de dos FARME.<sup>4 </sup>Sin embargo, tambi&eacute;n sabemos que el tratamiento con FARME, aun combinado, puede lograr el control de los signos y s&iacute;ntomas de la enfermedad, pero no ser suficiente para inhibir el da&ntilde;o articular estructural; por eso es importante considerar el uso de agentes biol&oacute;gicos que ya han demostrado ser eficaces no s&oacute;lo para el control de los signos y s&iacute;ntomas, sino tambi&eacute;n para disminuir<sup>5,6</sup> e incluso inhibir el da&ntilde;o.<sup>7</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Basado en lo anteriormente expuesto, se propone la gu&iacute;a de inicio de tratamiento en la AR contenida en el <a href="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11c5.jpg" target="_blank">cuadro 5</a> con la finalidad de que pueda ser un camino viable y eficiente evit&aacute;ndose tratamientos innecesarios que s&oacute;lo retrasan el control adecuado y la inhibici&oacute;n de la actividad de la enfermedad.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>ESQUEMA DE TRATAMIENTO EN ARTRITIS REUMATOIDE</b></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En los &uacute;ltimos 50 a&ntilde;os la estrategia del tratamiento de la artritis reumatoide (AR) fue dise&ntilde;ada bajo la premisa err&oacute;nea de que el pron&oacute;stico de la enfermedad en general era favorable. Actualmente sabemos que la mayor&iacute;a de pacientes con enfermedad activa est&aacute; cl&iacute;nicamente discapacitada en los primeros 20 a&ntilde;os de la enfermedad y m&aacute;s de 90% de pacientes con sinovitis tienen evidencia radiol&oacute;gica de erosiones en los primeros dos a&ntilde;os despu&eacute;s de establecido el diagn&oacute;stico a pesar del tratamiento convencional con FARME.<sup>1</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Aunque la cura a&uacute;n no es un objetivo viable, la remisi&oacute;n s&iacute; lo es. En 1997 Bensen <i>et al.</i><sup>2</sup> propusieron una nueva pir&aacute;mide para el tratamiento de la AR basada en la evaluaci&oacute;n reumatol&oacute;gica temprana y el empleo inicial agresivo de FARME (<a href="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11c6.jpg" target="_blank">Cuadro 6</a>). La monoterapia con FARME se utiliza cada vez menos con base en la evidencia creciente de que la terapia combinada con FARME o agentes biol&oacute;gicos es m&aacute;s eficiente.<sup>3&#150;6</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Est&aacute; demostrada la efectividad de los modificadores de la respuesta biol&oacute;gica recientemente desarrollados. Su blanco son citocinas especificas poseedoras de un papel importante para perpetuar la inflamaci&oacute;n de la AR como son el TNF&alpha; (siglas del ingl&eacute;s para Factor de Necrosis Tumoral alfa), y la IL&#150;1 (interleucina&#150;1) entre los que se cuentan etanercept, infliximab y adalimumab y anakinra, respectivamente.<sup>7&#150;</sup><sup>12</sup> Actualmente varios productos biol&oacute;gicos que se encuentran en investigaci&oacute;n han sido dise&ntilde;ados para bloquear otras citocinas (IL&#150;6), o bien para activaci&oacute;n de c&eacute;lulas T (abatacept) y c&eacute;lulas B (rituximab).<sup>13&#150;</sup><sup>15</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Informaci&oacute;n reciente muestra que la administraci&oacute;n temprana de FARME produce mejor&iacute;a cl&iacute;nica y retraso en la progresi&oacute;n radiol&oacute;gica de la enfermedad<sup>16,17</sup> como ocurre con metotrexato (MTX), leflunomida (LFL), sulfasalazina (SSZ), hidroxicloroquina (HCQ), ciclosporina, minociclina, azatioprina, D&#150;penicilamina y oro intramuscular. Comparten todos algunas caracter&iacute;sticas como son el lento inicio de acci&oacute;n y un mecanismo de acci&oacute;n no bien dilucidado. En un metaan&aacute;lisis de estudios ciegos y controlados se encontr&oacute; que la potencia relativa de la mayor&iacute;a (MTX, SSZ, oro IM y D&#150;penicilamina) es similar y que la de HCQ y oro oral son menos potentes.<sup>18</sup> En comparaci&oacute;n con MTX la leflunomida tiene eficacia similar para control de variables cl&iacute;nicas de actividad de la enfermedad y progresi&oacute;n radiol&oacute;gica.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En la literatura sobre terapia combinada con FARME se refiere al metotrexato (MTX) como la piedra angular de los esquemas terap&eacute;uticos. El primer estudio cl&iacute;nico de terapia combinada con MTX fue hecho en 1995 por Tugwell, <i>et al.,<sup>19</sup> </i>en pacientes con respuesta parcial a MTX en las dosis m&aacute;ximas toleradas, agregando ciclosporina (2.5 a 5 mg/kg) o placebo. Los pacientes que recibieron ambos FARME tuvieron una mejor&iacute;a de 25% tanto en la cuenta de articulaciones dolorosas comparado con el grupo placebo o 4.8 articulaciones (95% IC, 0.7 a 8.9: p = 0.02), y 25% de mejor&iacute;a en la cuenta de articulaciones inflamadas o 3.8 articulaciones (95% IC 1.3 a 6.3; p = 0.005); en comparaci&oacute;n con el grupo que recibi&oacute; s&oacute;lo MTX (ACR20 en 48% <i>vs. </i>16%, respectivamente). La toxicidad principal fue el incremento en creatinina s&eacute;rica (p = 0.02).</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">O'Dell, et al.,<sup>3</sup> realizaron un estudio doble ciego, aleatorizado y con un periodo de observaci&oacute;n de dos a&ntilde;os, que compar&oacute; el &iacute;ndice Paulus 50 en 102 pacientes adultos con AR, tratados con MTX+SSL*HCQ. Los resultados mostraron que la terapia triple con MTX+SSZ+HCQ fue superior a la combinaci&oacute;n HCQ*SSZ. Cabe destacar que la toxicidad no se increment&oacute; en los grupos de terapia combinada en comparaci&oacute;n con el MTX como &uacute;nica terapia.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En el estudio COBRA (de las siglas en el art&iacute;culo original para Combinatietherapie Bij Reumatoide Artritis), 155 pacientes adultos con AR de menos de dos a&ntilde;os de evoluci&oacute;n se aleatorizaron para tratamiento combinado con prednisolona (60 mg/d&iacute;a) m&aacute;s MTX oral (7.5 mg/sem), m&aacute;s SSZ (2 g/d&iacute;a) <i>vs. </i>SSZ (2 g/d&iacute;a) como &uacute;nico FARME. En la semana 40 el tratamiento mantenido fue similar puesto que en el grupo de terapia combinada se hab&iacute;a reducido la prednisolona hasta suspenderla en la semana 28 y el MTX se suspendi&oacute; hasta la semana 40. En la semana 28 el grupo de terapia combinada mejor&oacute; significativamente m&aacute;s que el grupo de SSZ sola con ACR20 de 72 <i>vs. </i>49% y ACR50 de 49 <i>vs. </i>27%, respectivamente, para uno y otro grupos. Aunque la mejor&iacute;a cl&iacute;nica fue similar despu&eacute;s de la semana 28, el beneficio radiol&oacute;gico (retardo del da&ntilde;o &oacute;seo) persisti&oacute; a los cinco a&ntilde;os.<sup>20</sup> Los resultados de este estudio sugieren el concepto de que utilizar glucocorticoides u otros medicamentos como terapia de inducci&oacute;n permiten obtener beneficios a largo plazo.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Aunque los glucocorticoides no se incluyen como FARME, los estudios recientes han demostrado su capacidad para retardar el da&ntilde;o &oacute;seo en AR temprana; los efectos secundarios limitan su uso por periodos prolongados como monoterapia para el control de la AR.<sup>20&#150;</sup><sup>24</sup> Los glucocorticoides en dosis equivalentes iguales o menores de 10 mg de prednisona por d&iacute;a son utilizados para tratar de 30 a 60% de los pacientes con AR.<sup>21</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El empleo de terapia combinada de FARME que hasta hace una d&eacute;cada no era tan com&uacute;n, se ha incrementado en forma tal que m&aacute;s de 30% de los pacientes de AR tratados por reumat&oacute;logos la utilizan;<sup>25</sup> este incremento ha sido favorecido por los resultados de estudios que compararon frente a frente FARME combinados <i>vs. </i>MTX<sup>3&#150;</sup><sup>4</sup> y estudios que demostraron el beneficio adicional de agregar otro FARME a pacientes en MTX con enfermedad activa.<sup>10,19,26,27 </sup> Con el MTX como &uacute;nico FARME, un tercio de los pacientes mejora 50% despu&eacute;s de dos a cuatro a&ntilde;os<sup>3</sup> y el a&ntilde;adir &aacute;cido f&oacute;lico oral previene toxicidad hep&aacute;tica (elevaci&oacute;n de transaminasas) sin reducir la eficacia de MTX.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El oro (oral y parenteral) ha ca&iacute;do en desuso por su prolongado inicio de respuesta ben&eacute;fica, su toxicidad y estar disponible en M&eacute;xico. La azatioprina y la ciclofosfamida se utilizan en AR con manifestaciones extraarticulares refractarias a otros tratamientos y administradas durante periodos cortos por su probable asociaci&oacute;n a neoplasias.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>CRITERIOS DE FALLA DEL TRATAMIENTO</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El manejo &oacute;ptimo de los FARME, administrados individualmente o en combinaci&oacute;n, con selecci&oacute;n adecuada del paciente y siguiendo instrucciones precisas de los FARME (metotrexato, sulfasalazina, hidroxicloroquina, azatioprina, sales de oro, leflunomida, ciclosporina A y otros, en particular el citado en primer lugar), ha mejorado notablemente el manejo global y la seguridad en el tratamiento de la artritis reumatoide (AR) en las &uacute;ltimas dos d&eacute;cadas.<sup>1&#150;</sup><sup>4</sup> Por ello, se recomienda como administraci&oacute;n <i>ad hoc </i>precediendo a la de cualquier producto biol&oacute;gico.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Una vez establecido el diagn&oacute;stico de AR debe iniciarse tratamiento con dos FARME, y a juicio del m&eacute;dico tratante se puede agregar desde el inicio un tercer f&aacute;rmaco. De la misma manera, el empleo de dosis bajas de prednisona al inicio del tratamiento o durante el seguimiento, del orden de 7.5 a 10 mg/d&iacute;a, tambi&eacute;n queda a criterio del m&eacute;dico tratante.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El paciente debe ser seguido de manera estricta para detectar oportunamente la falla terap&eacute;utica o la aparici&oacute;n de efectos adversos y actuar en consecuencia.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Indicadores de falla terap&eacute;utica utilizando FARME</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Dado que los pacientes con AR pueden no mostrar mejor&iacute;a con la administraci&oacute;n apropiada de FARME, o bien desarrollar eventos adversos indeseables, actualmente se recomienda el empleo temprano y oportuno de los inhibidores del factor de necrosis tumoral alfa como adalimumab, etanercept o infliximab.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Se define como falla terap&eacute;utica a FARME cuando:</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&bull; El paciente persiste con actividad de la AR a pesar de haber recibido al menos dos o tres FARME a dosis &oacute;ptimas (<a href="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11c1.jpg" target="_blank">Cuadro 1</a>) y por tiempo apropiado (tratamiento durante al menos cuatro a seis meses sin respuesta a los mismos). Ante la falla a un FARME determinado se puede y es v&aacute;lido intentar la adici&oacute;n de otro f&aacute;rmaco.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&bull; El (los) FARME ha (n) tenido que ser suspendido (s) por la aparici&oacute;n de efectos adversos.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Se recomienda que antes de considerar como falla terap&eacute;utica a FARME en pacientes con AR tratados por terceras personas, se revise cuidadosamente el tratamiento administrado previamente, y si se concluye que la actividad es consecuencia de falla de los FARME, se proceda entonces como se indica.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Una vez definida la existencia de falla terap&eacute;utica de los FARME a&ntilde;adidos al tratamiento sintom&aacute;tico, deber&aacute;n considerarse los agentes biol&oacute;gicos, seg&uacute;n sus indicaciones, los medios para evaluar la respuesta al tratamiento y los criterios de remisi&oacute;n. Estos conceptos se comentan a continuaci&oacute;n, deduci&eacute;ndose algunas recomendaciones.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Indicaciones para </b><b>el empleo de inhibidores </b><b>de factor de necrosis tumoral</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El empleo de inhibidores del factor de necrosis tumoral alfa en pacientes con AR y otros padecimientos reum&aacute;ticos s&oacute;lo deben realizarlo m&eacute;dicos con experiencia en el diagn&oacute;stico y tratamiento de dichas enfermedades, as&iacute; como familiarizados con los instrumentos de evaluaci&oacute;n de la eficacia y seguridad de los mismos. Las siguientes situaciones son tributarias del empleo de inhibidores del factor de necrosis tumoral en AR:</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&bull; Primero, falla terap&eacute;utica a FARME como ha quedado definido.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&bull; Segundo, actividad importante de la AR, definida como la presencia de DAS (disease activity score) 28 &gt;3.1.<sup>57</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&bull; Tercero, pacientes con AR con factores de mal pron&oacute;stico como 8&#150;12 articulaciones inflamadas de manera persistente; puntaje en el Health Assessment Questionnaire Disability Index (HAQ&#150;DI) de 4 a 11 o&gt;11; prote&iacute;na C reactiva &gt; 20 mg/litro; factor reumatoide positivo a t&iacute;tulos elevados y/o anticuerpos citrulinados positivos.<sup>8&#150;10</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&bull; Cuarto, artritis reumatoide temprana, como se define previamente.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En virtud de que hasta la fecha no se han realizado estudios comparativos entre los tres inhibidores de factor de necrosis tumoral disponibles (adalimumab, etanercept e infliximab) y su eficacia pr&aacute;cticamente es comparable al menos en la AR, la espondilitis anquilosante y la artritis psori&aacute;sica; es decir, no se ha demostrado que alguno sea m&aacute;s eficaz que los otros, la selecci&oacute;n de un producto de esta clase queda a la libre decisi&oacute;n del m&eacute;dico tratante.<sup>11</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Adem&aacute;s, dado que los inhibidores del factor de necrosis tumoral generalmente otorgan una respuesta m&aacute;s favorable cuando se asocian a metotrexato, se recomienda mantener la administraci&oacute;n de este FARME durante la administraci&oacute;n del producto biol&oacute;gico.<sup>12&#150;14</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Por &uacute;ltimo, cabe mencionar que el empleo inicial de inhibidores del factor de necrosis tumoral antes de haber empleado FARME no tiene otra limitaci&oacute;n que la corta experiencia y el elevado costo. No obstante, su administraci&oacute;n est&aacute; indicada y se justifica en aquellos casos en que exista alguna contraindicaci&oacute;n espec&iacute;fica para el empleo de los FARME convencionales.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Evaluaci&oacute;n del efecto terap&eacute;utico de los inhibidores del factor de necrosis tumoral</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Si bien existen numerosos instrumentos que permiten evaluar diversas dimensiones de la evoluci&oacute;n y el curso de la AR tales como mejor&iacute;a,<sup>15&#150;</sup><sup>20 </sup>remisi&oacute;n,<sup>21</sup> da&ntilde;o radiol&oacute;gico,<sup>22&#150;</sup><sup>24</sup> HAQ&#150;DI, SF&#150;36 y otros, en la pr&aacute;ctica cl&iacute;nica se recomienda la evaluaci&oacute;n y el seguimiento de los pacientes mediante un procedimiento sencillo como el Disease Activity Score que eval&uacute;a 28 articulaciones (DAS 28) mismo que permite valorar globalmente y de manera r&aacute;pida la actividad y evoluci&oacute;n articular de la AR,<sup>5&#150;</sup><sup>7</sup> sin olvidar los reactantes de fase aguda y las evaluaciones globales por m&eacute;dico y paciente.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Criterios de remisi&oacute;n</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Inducir la remisi&oacute;n de la AR sigue siendo el objetivo principal del tratamiento. Si bien con anterioridad se utilizaron los criterios de remisi&oacute;n del American College of Rheumatology (ACR),<sup>21</sup> en la actualidad y dada su simplicidad, se recomienda el empleo del DAS28 (Disease Activity Score), instrumento en el que alcanzar una cifra de 2.6 es equivalente a remisi&oacute;n.<sup>7</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Indicadores de falla terap&eacute;utica empleando inhibidores del factor de necrosis tumoral</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La respuesta terap&eacute;utica a los inhibidores del factor de necrosis tumoral alfa es impredecible en forma individual para cada paciente aunque la respuesta esperada tiene fundamento cl&iacute;nico y estad&iacute;stico. As&iacute;, al analizar la respuesta informada en ocho estudios, utilizando etanercept, infliximab o adalimumab, Roberts, <i>et al.</i><sup>25</sup> informaron respuesta seg&uacute;n los criterios del ACR de 20% en 45% a 85%, de 50% en 21 a 69% y de 70% en nueve a 25% de los pacientes, situaci&oacute;n que ha llevado a concluir que globalmente alrededor de 60% de los pacientes responden a su empleo.<sup>26</sup> Por ello, y de la misma manera que con el empleo de los FARME, se considera falla terap&eacute;utica cuando despu&eacute;s de tres meses de su administraci&oacute;n no se ha logrado controlar satisfactoriamente la enfermedad.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Recomendaciones</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En opini&oacute;n de los participantes en la elaboraci&oacute;n de estas recomendaciones, el Grupo de Estudio de Nuevas Terapias en Enfermedades reum&aacute;ticas (GENTE), acuerda que una respuesta cl&iacute;nica de 20% seg&uacute;n los criterios del ACR<sup>15</sup> <sup>18</sup> no tiene relevancia y puede considerarse como falla al tratamiento, m&aacute;xime si se considera que la mejor&iacute;a en este rango ocurre en 14 a 27% de los pacientes tratados con placebo.<sup>25</sup> En pacientes en quienes se han alcanzado respuestas de 50 a 70% de acuerdo con los criterios del ACR, se debe evaluar individualmente la adici&oacute;n de otro FARME convencional u otros recursos terap&eacute;uticos.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Dado que no existe ninguna experiencia, no se recomienda en este momento la administraci&oacute;n simult&aacute;nea de dos inhibidores del factor de necrosis tumoral, o bien de uno de ellos con otro producto biol&oacute;gico.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Por &uacute;ltimo, en fecha reciente se han publicado diversos estudios que informan de respuesta favorable al iniciar otro producto biol&oacute;gico con propiedades semejantes. As&iacute;, ante la falla terap&eacute;utica, definida como ausencia de respuesta despu&eacute;s de ocho a 12 semanas de administraci&oacute;n de un biol&oacute;gico, se justifica plenamente cambiar de etanercept a adalimumab, de infliximab a adalimumab, de infliximab a etanercept y viceversa.<sup>27&#150;</sup><sup>34</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>TAMIZAJE PARA TUBERCULOSIS</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La tuberculosis es una de las infecciones de mayor morbimortalidad y de mayor prevalencia, con 8.3 millones de infectados anualmente en el mundo, lo que significa 1.8 millones de muertes cada a&ntilde;o. En M&eacute;xico ocurren 1,200 muertes al a&ntilde;o por esta enfermedad.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Se sabe que la vacunaci&oacute;n con BCG no es sin&oacute;nimo de eficacia, la que va de 80% (Canad&aacute;) hasta 0% (India), pero en general el balance es que s&iacute; resulta eficaz para prevenir infecciones tuberculosas graves dentro de las que se incluyen a la meningitis y la forma miliar, as&iacute; como potencialmente evitar la enfermedad multifarmacorresistente.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La intradermorreacci&oacute;n asociada a la vacunaci&oacute;n es del orden de 4&#150;10 mm y persiste por a&ntilde;os; as&iacute;, en nuestra poblaci&oacute;n adulta joven<sup>1</sup> (estudiantes de Medicina) que recibieron casi en su totalidad vacunaci&oacute;n con BCG (Bacillus Calmette&#150;Gu&eacute;rin), el PPD (Purified Protein Derivative) es positivo en la tercera parte, porcentaje que suele incrementarse 10&#150;15% con la prueba de refuerzo ("booster"). En etapas posteriores (35 o m&aacute;s a&ntilde;os de edad) como ocurre en los pacientes con artritis reumatoide (AR), se observa el PPD positivo en alrededor de 10%. La lectura posterior a la inyecci&oacute;n intrad&eacute;rmica de 5 U de tuberculina se lee a las 48&#150;72 horas mediante la induraci&oacute;n (mm) en inmunosuprimidos como en los pacientes bajo tratamiento con FARME (f&aacute;rmacos antirreum&aacute;ticos modificadores de la enfermedad) tales como MTX, sulfasalazina, azatioprina y leflunomida, se considera como PPD positivo a aquel igual o mayor a 5 mm. El PPD tiene baja sensibilidad y especificidad (reacci&oacute;n cruzada con otras micobacterias no tuberculosas); en los reci&eacute;n infectados suele tardar seis a 10 semanas en hacerse positiva la intradermorreacci&oacute;n, en la Tb pulmonar activa el PPD es positivo en 80% y en menor cuant&iacute;a en la Tb pleural, peric&aacute;rdica o peritoneal.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Recientemente se han desarrollado otras pruebas que pudieran ser de mayor utilidad que el PPD como es la de interfer&oacute;n gamma (quantifer&oacute;n), con ant&iacute;genos espec&iacute;ficos (ESAT&#150;6 y CFP&#150;10) para <i>Mycobactetrium tuberculosis </i>y con potencial mayor sensibilidad y especificidad; que aunque se ha informado en los pa&iacute;ses desarrollados, no se ha ratificado en otras naciones en donde la Tb es m&aacute;s frecuente. Esta prueba resulta poco sensible y no correlaciona con el PPD; en Tb activa es positiva en 81% de los pacientes, pero la sensibilidad en personas con riesgo es pobre (4&#150;44%).<sup>1A</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Tamizaje en M&eacute;xico de tuberculosis </b><b>en pacientes con artritis </b><b>reumatoide susceptibles a terapia </b><b>con bloqueadores anti&#150;TNF</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Con la finalidad de mejorar la sensibilidad y especificidad para identificar a pacientes con artritis reumatoide (AR) susceptibles a tratamiento con bloqueadores del factor de necrosis tumoral (TNF), pero con mayor riesgo para tuberculosis, proponemos la gu&iacute;a contenida en los <a href="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11c7.jpg" target="_blank">cuadros 7</a> y <a href="/img/revistas/ric/v57n5/a11c8.jpg" target="_blank">8</a>. La premisa esencial es que todo paciente con tuberculosis activa deber&aacute; ser descartado para recibir terapia biol&oacute;gica.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>SEGURIDAD DE LOS BLOQUEADORES DEL FACTOR DE NECROSIS TUMORAL &alpha;</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los bloqueadores del TNF han sido empleados en m&aacute;s de 700,000 pacientes con excelente tolerabilidad, eficacia a corto y a largo plazos, con disminuci&oacute;n, retraso y evasi&oacute;n del da&ntilde;o estructural en los pacientes con AR. Aunque hace s&oacute;lo unos a&ntilde;os su administraci&oacute;n se limitaba al 10% de los pacientes con AR agresiva, en los pa&iacute;ses desarrollados actualmente se administra hasta en 35%, y seguramente este porcentaje se incrementar&aacute; y se incluir&aacute;n con mayor frecuencia en pacientes en etapas tempranas de la enfermedad; lo anterior, sustentado adem&aacute;s en estudios de costo&#150;beneficio.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Asociaci&oacute;n con procesos infecciosos</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La asociaci&oacute;n con procesos infecciosos es una eventualidad a considerar puesto que aunque no frecuente, se han descrito infecciones graves.<sup>1&#150;</sup><sup>5 </sup>La tuberculosis (Tb) es caracter&iacute;stica, y ha disminuido ante la exclusi&oacute;n de pacientes con evidencia de Tb mediante PPD y tele de t&oacute;rax; as&iacute;, su asociaci&oacute;n se ha abatido hasta en 85%. En los pacientes con artritis reumatoide (AR) m&aacute;s agresiva, hay mayor expresi&oacute;n de IFNy en las c&eacute;lulas sangu&iacute;neas y menores niveles de expresi&oacute;n de TNF, por lo que su bloqueo adicional puede resultar cr&iacute;tico para el desarrollo de esta infecci&oacute;n.<sup>6&#150;8</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En ratones en los que se deleciona (knock&#150;out) el gen para el TNF y se infectan con bacilo tuberculoso, disminuye su supervivencia de 50 a 33 d&iacute;as y desarrollan abscesos tuberculosos diseminados.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La tasa de Tb en pacientes con AR es de 6.2/ 100,000 y se incrementa cuatro veces m&aacute;s en los tratados con infliximab (24.4/100,000), y menor con adalimumab y etanercept, con desarrollo m&aacute;s frecuente de enfermedad extrapulmonar (incremento de 18 a 57%) y diseminada (aumento de &lt; 2% a 50%). El tiempo promedio de presentaci&oacute;n en los casos de Tb asociados a infliximab es de 12 semanas, con adalimumab es de 30 y con etanercept es de 46 semanas.<sup>2,9</sup> Tambi&eacute;n deben tenerse en cuenta las micosis profundas que se presentan caracter&iacute;sticamente como fiebre en estudio (histoplasmosis y coccidiodomicosis) y a la listeriosis; esta &uacute;ltima particularmente informada en personas de edad avanzada bajo tratamiento con infliximab habitualmente en combinaci&oacute;n con FAR&#150;ME.<sup>10</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Aunque la respuesta cut&aacute;nea (PPD) tard&iacute;a puede ser variable en los pacientes con AR y en particular en nuestro medio ante la exposici&oacute;n a BCG, la administraci&oacute;n de anti&#150;TNF debe de evitarse o retrasarse y recibir quimioprofilaxis con isoniazida en aquellos con PPD &gt; 5 mm o ante radiograf&iacute;a de t&oacute;rax sugerente de infecci&oacute;n.<sup>11</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los pacientes con AR tratados con los FARME convencionales o con bloqueadores del TNF, deben de recibir vacunaci&oacute;n para neumococo y posiblemente en casos seleccionados debi&eacute;ramos emplear tratamiento profil&aacute;ctico para <i>Pneumocystis jiroveci </i>(antes <i>carinii), </i>en particular en quienes han recibido dosis iguales o mayores de 15 mg/d&iacute;a de prednisona durante cuatro semanas, bajo tratamiento con MTX y con linfopenia grave. Los pacientes que viven en &aacute;reas end&eacute;micas de histoplasmosis, probablemente debieran recibir bloqueadores de TNF de vida media corta (etanercept) preferentemente a los de vida larga (inflixi&#150;mab) y se les debieran hacer estudios para coccidiodinia e histoplasmina.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Adem&aacute;s de los procesos infecciosos descritos, se ha informado de incremento en la presentaci&oacute;n de insuficiencia cardiaca congestiva,<sup>12</sup> sobre todo en pacientes con antecedentes de cardiopat&iacute;a por lo que, en aquellos con factores de riesgo, deber&aacute;n de usarse con sumo cuidado. En menor medida se ha descrito la asociaci&oacute;n con enfermedades desmielinizantes,<sup>13,14</sup> lo que obliga al m&eacute;dico a realizar examen f&iacute;sico completo (con exploraci&oacute;n neurol&oacute;gica). A pesar de la rareza de esta asociaci&oacute;n, al suspenderse el tratamiento, el proceso neurol&oacute;gico puede revertir. Excepcionalmente se ha informado la concurrencia de hepatitis fulminante.<sup>15</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los pacientes con AR agresiva tienen mayor riesgo de desarrollar linfomas, aunque hay tambi&eacute;n asociaci&oacute;n con el empleo de medicamentos anti&#150;TNF. Las evidencias sugieren que los pacientes con presentaci&oacute;n de estos procesos linfoproliferativos son aquellos con enfermedad m&aacute;s agresiva, de mayor tiempo de evoluci&oacute;n y bajo tratamiento con FARME y en particular la azatioprina.<sup>16</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los pacientes con AR bajo tratamiento con anti&#150;TNF incrementan sus autoanticuerpos que incluyen a los antinucleares en 30 a 40&#150;53%; menos com&uacute;n (14%) es la asociaci&oacute;n con anti&#150;DNA, habitualmente de un solo isotipo de inmunoglobulina, aunque rara vez hay s&iacute;ndrome l&uacute;pico con anti&#150;DNA de diversas inmunoglobulinas (IgM, G y  A).<sup>17,18</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Otras advertencias asociadas con el empleo de los anti&#150;TNF</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&bull; <b><i>Anti&#150;TNF </i></b><i>y <b>cirug&iacute;a. </b></i>En el caso de cirug&iacute;a de urgencia, se sugiere no administrar el agente biol&oacute;gico, sino 2&#150;4 semanas despu&eacute;s del evento. Deben de seguirse las gu&iacute;as de manejo de profilaxis con antibi&oacute;ticos para estas cirug&iacute;as y para las de elecci&oacute;n.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Recientemente, Den Broeder, <i>et al. </i>informaron que en caso de cirug&iacute;a ortop&eacute;dica de elecci&oacute;n hay mayor riesgo de infecci&oacute;n en pacientes con AR bajo tratamiento con anti&#150;TNF que son sometidos a cirug&iacute;a del pie (raz&oacute;n de momios &#91;OR de las siglas en ingl&eacute;s para odds ratio&#93; de 3.1), en aquellos con diabetes mellitus (OR 1.9) y los que est&aacute;n bajo tratamiento con prednisona (OR 1.8). Es interesante se&ntilde;alar que en cirug&iacute;a electiva no se incrementa el riesgo de infecci&oacute;n en pacientes que reciben estos medicamentos en el perioperatorio.<sup>19</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&bull; <b><i>Vacunas y uso de biol&oacute;gicos. </i></b>No hay experiencia respecto al uso de vacunas con virus vivos atenuados durante el tratamiento con agentes anti&#150;TNF, por lo que se sugiere evitarlas.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En el caso de vacunaci&oacute;n con polisac&aacute;ridos para neumon&iacute;a por neumococo, aunque los pacientes bajo este tipo de tratamiento son capaces de montar respuesta inmune adecuada, en general lo hacen en menor porcentaje y a menores t&iacute;tulos de anticuerpos al compararse con la poblaci&oacute;n que no est&aacute; bajo tratamiento con bloqueadores del TNF.<sup>20,21</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&bull; <b><i>Anti&#150;TNF en mayores de 65 a&ntilde;os de edad. </i></b>Bas&aacute;ndose en lo informado en la literatura a pesar de no contar con estudios espec&iacute;ficos al respecto, se sugiere lo siguiente para el empleo de medicamentos anti&#150;TNF:</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&deg; Limitar su uso en pacientes sin enfermedad cardiovascular concomitante, en particular clase funcional III y IV.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&deg; Considerar el ajuste de la dosis del biol&oacute;gico tan pronto como sea posible.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&deg; Estrechar la vigilancia con respecto a procesos infecciosos, neoplasias (linfoma), eventos cardiovasculares y otros.<sup>10,12</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b><i>Uso de agentes biol&oacute;gicos y embarazo. </i></b>La conclusi&oacute;n al respecto por ahora es la siguiente:</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&deg; A pesar de que actualmente no hay estudios controlados que muestren evidencia de que los inhibidores del TNF tengan efectos nocivos durante el embarazo (incluida teratogenicidad) y considerando que en la AR la actividad de la enfermedad generalmente disminuye durante el mismo, no se recomienda su uso durante el embarazo y hasta el momento est&aacute;n proscritos en la lactancia.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>CONCLUSIONES</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La artritis reumatoide (AR) aunque es un padecimiento catastr&oacute;fico, es potencialmente modificable en su historia natural. Lo anterior ha sido posible gracias al conocimiento de los procesos inmunopatog&eacute;nicos que se conforman por diversos protagonistas celulares y los productos solubles de dichas c&eacute;lulas tales como citocinas, quimiocinas, metaloproteasas y factores angiog&eacute;nicos. De ah&iacute; surgi&oacute; el grupo de f&aacute;rmacos modificadores de enfermedad (FARME) actualmente considerados como convencionales porque existe acuerdo para su empleo.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Con base en el avance en el conocimiento de la patogenia de la AR, se han desarrollado anticuerpos monoclonales que bloquean las acciones y repercusiones de esos protagonistas, traduci&eacute;ndose en la disminuci&oacute;n del proceso inflamatorio y el retraso o no aparici&oacute;n de las alteraciones o da&ntilde;o estructural.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los conocimientos logrados a trav&eacute;s de estudios controlados permiten recomendar la combinaci&oacute;n de metotrexato con alguno de los agentes bloqueadores del factor de necrosis tumoral, lo que resulta en la mejor opci&oacute;n para alcanzar respuestas adecuadas y la potencial remisi&oacute;n de la enfermedad. Efectivamente, esto no s&oacute;lo detiene el proceso inflamatorio y los cambios estructurales, sino que adem&aacute;s mejora la calidad de vida e incrementa la supervivencia de aquellos quienes sufren esta enfermedad que representa un problema grave de salud.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Actualmente tambi&eacute;n reconocemos factores de mal pron&oacute;stico que contribuyen a la gravedad de la AR, que se comentan en la secci&oacute;n correspondiente de esta comunicaci&oacute;n. El cl&iacute;nico, a trav&eacute;s del adecuado escrutinio, evaluaci&oacute;n y tamizaje, selecciona, inicia y conduce el tratamiento.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La combinaci&oacute;n de medicamentos modificadores de la enfermedad, empleada por la mayor&iacute;a de los especialistas con el objetivo de lograr algo m&aacute;s que el simple alivio sintom&aacute;tico. Hemos aprendido que aplicando tratamientos que aun cuando son algo agresivos &#150;pero lo sabemos y puede evitarse o reducirse el riesgo&#150; son sin duda m&aacute;s eficaces y su uso oportuno (temprano) permite lograr mayores y mejores resultados, con remisiones cl&iacute;nicas alrededor de 30 a 40%. Sin embargo, en ocasiones y a pesar de ello, los cambios estructurales progresan; en esos casos y en los pacientes en quienes no obtenemos una respuesta satisfactoria, debemos de considerar la terapia biol&oacute;gica, despu&eacute;s de descartar en lo posible tuberculosis latente o activa, lo que exige la pr&aacute;ctica de PPD y radiograf&iacute;a PA de t&oacute;rax.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Estas conclusiones se apoyan en lo que cada secci&oacute;n describe en este informe producto de la discusi&oacute;n coordinada del Grupo de Estudio de Nuevas Terapias en Enfermedades reum&aacute;ticas.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>REFERENCIAS ARTRITIS REUMATOIDE TEMPRANA</b></font></p>     <!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">1. Pincus   T.   Assessment  of long&#150;term   outcomes   of rheumatoid  arthritis.  How  choices  of measures  and study designs may   lead  to   apparently   different  conclusions. <i>Rheum  Dis Clin North Am  </i>1995; 2:  1619&#150;54.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764249&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100001&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">2. Scott  DL.   Prognostic  factors  in  early rheumatoid  arthritis. <i>Rheumatology  </i>(Oxford)   2000;   39(Suppl   1):   24&#150;9.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764250&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100002&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">3. Brook A,  Corbett  M.   Radiographic  changes  in  early rheumatoid diseases. <i>Ann Rheum Dis.   </i>1977; 36:  71&#150;3.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764251&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100003&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">4. 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Guidelines  for  Monitoring  Drug  Therapy  in   Rheumatoid  Arthritis. <i>Arthritis Rheum.   </i>1966;   39: 723&#150;31.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764274&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100026&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">27. Green   M,   Marzo&#150;Ortega   H,   McGonagle   D,   Wakefield   R, Proudman  S,  Conaghan P,  et al.  Persistence of mild,  early inflammatory   arthritis.   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Differentiating persisting from self limiting symmetrical synovitis in an early arthritis clinic. <i>Br J Rheumatol   </i>1993;  97&#150;103.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764276&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100028&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">29. Visser  H,   le   Cessie   S,   Vos  K,   Breedveld  FC,  Hazes  JM. 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Influence of prognostic features on the final outcome   in  rheumatoid   arthritis:   A  review   of the   literature. <i>Semin Arthritis Rheum  </i>1988;  17:  284&#150;92.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764280&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100030&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">1a. Heliovaara M, Ako K, Aromaa A, Knekt P, Reunanen A. Smoking and risk of rheumatoid artritis. <i>J Rheumatol </i>1993;   20(11):   1830&#150;5.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764281&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100031&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">1b. Stolt P, Bengtsson C, Nordmark B, Lindblad S, Lundberg S et al. EIRA study group. Quantification of the influence of cigarette smoking on rheumatoid arthritis: results from a population based case&#150;control study, using incident cases. <i>Ann Rheum Dis </i>2003;  62(9):  832&#150;40.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764282&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100032&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">2. Boki  KA,  Panayi  GS,  Vaughan  RW,  Drosos  AA,  Moutsopoulos   HM,   Lanchbury   JS.   HLA   class   II   sequence   polymorphism    and    susceptibility   to    rheumatoid    arthritis    in Greeks. <i>Arthritis Rheum 1992;  </i>35:   749&#150;55.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764283&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100033&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">3. Gao X, Gazit E, Livneh A,  Statsny P.  Rheumatoid arthritis in Israeli  Jews:   Shared sequences  in the  Third hypervariable region of DRB1 al&iacute;eles are associated with susceptibility. <i>J Rheumatol  </i>1991;   18:  801&#150;3.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764284&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100034&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">4. Singal DP, Green D, Reid B, Gladman DD, Buchanan WW. HLA&#150;D   region   genes   and   rheumatoid   arthritis   (RA):   Importance  of DR  and DQ  genes  in  conferring susceptibility to RA. <i>Ann Rheum Dis </i>1992; 51: 23&#150;8.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764285&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100035&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">5. Olsen  NJ,   Callahan  LF,   Brooks   RH,  Nance   EP,   Kaye   JJ, Stastny P, et al.  Association of HLA&#150;DR4 with rheumatoid factor   and   radiographic   severity   in   rheumatoid   arthritis. <i>Am J Med </i>1988;  84:  257&#150;64.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764286&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100036&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">6. Alarcon GS,  Koopman WJ,  Acton RT, Barger BO.  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Radiographic, clinical, and functional outcomes of treatment with adalimumab (a human anti&#150;tumor   necrosis   factor   monoclonal   antibody)   in   patients with active rheumatoid  arthritis  receiving  concomitant methotrexate   therapy:   a   randomized,   placebo&#150;controlled,   52&#150;week trial. <i>Arthritis Rheum </i>2004;  50:   1400&#150;11.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764334&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100082&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>ESQUEMA DE TRATAMIENTO EN ARTRITIS REUMATOIDE</b></font></p>     ]]></body>
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Glucocorticoids   in   rheumatoid   arthritis: effects   on   erosions   and   bone. <i>Ann  N   Y Acad  Sci   </i>2002; 966:   82&#150;90.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764360&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100106&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">25. Mikuls TR,  O'Dell J.  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Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with ana&#150;kinra,  a recombinant human  interleukin&#150;1   receptor  antagonist, in combination with methotrexate: results of a twenty&#150;four&#150;week,        multicenter,        randomized,        double&#150;blind, placebo&#150;controlled trial. <i>Arthritis Rheum </i>2002;  46:  614&#150;24.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764363&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100109&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>CRITERIOS DE FALLA DEL TRATAMIENTO</b></font></p>     <!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">1. Guidelines   for   the    management   of   rheumatoid   arthritis 2002   update.    American   College    of   Rheumatology   Subcommittee   on   Rheumatoid   Arthritis   Guidelines. <i>Arthritis Rheum  </i>2002;  46:   328&#150;46.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764366&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100110&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">2. Clair EW.  Disease&#150;modifying antirheumatic  drugs.  In:  Primer  on the  Rheumatic  Diseases.   Klippel  JH,   Ed.   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Modified  Disease  Activity Score  that  include  twenty&#150;eight joint  counts:   development and  validation   in  a  prospective   longitudinal   study  of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. <i>Arthritis Rheum   </i>1995;  38: 44&#150;8.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764370&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100114&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">6. Van Gestel  AM,  Haagsam  CJ,  van Riel  PLCM.  Validation of rheumatoid   arthritis   improvement  criteria  that  includes simplified  joint   counts. <i>Arthritis Rheum   </i>1998;   41:   1845&#150;50.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764371&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100115&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">7.<A href=http://www.das&#150;score.nl/ target="_blank"> http://www.das&#150;score.nl/www.das&#150;score.nl/DAS&#150;frame&#150;l.htm</A>.  Direcci&oacute;n en internet donde se puede consultar toda la informaci&oacute;n relativa al empleo del DAS28.</font></p>     <!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">8. Scott  DL.   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Etanercept in rheumatoid  arthritis  patients  with  a poor therapeutic  response  to infliximab. <i>Med Clin </i>(Bare) 2004;   122:  321&#150;4.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764394&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100137&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">30. Haraoui B, Keystone EC, Thorne JC, Pope JE, Chen I, Asare CG, et al. 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Rev. <i>Mex Reumat </i>2004;  19: 50 (20).</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764402&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100143&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">la. Kang YA, Lee HW, Yoon HH, Cho BL, Han SK, Shim YS, et al. Discrepancy between the tuberculin skin test and the whole&#150;blood interferon a assay for the diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection in an intermediate tuberculosis&#150;burden country.  <i>JAMA  </i>2005;  293:  2756&#150;61.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764403&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100144&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">2. Geng   E,   Kreiswirth,   Burzynski   J,   Schluger  NW.   Clinical and radiographic correlates  of primary and reactivation tuberculosis.   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The  evolving use  of tumor   necrosis   factor   inhibitors   in   rheumatoid   arthritis. <i>J Rheumatol </i>2004;  31:   10:   1881&#150;4.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764409&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100148&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">2. Khanna D,  et al.  Safety of tumor necrosis factor&#150;alpha antagonists. <i>Drug Saf </i>2004;  27:  307&#150;24.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764410&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100149&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">3. Dixon WG,  Watson K,  Hyrih KL,  Filman AJ.  Intracellular bacteria  infection  in  patients  receiving  biology therapy  in the  United  Kingdom.   Comparison  between  etanercept  and infliximab:    result   BFR   biology   register   (BSRBR). <i>Ann Rheum Dis </i>2005;  64:  426&#150;53.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6764411&pid=S0034-8376200500050001100150&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">4. Listing   J,   Strangfeld   A,   Rau   R.   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