<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0187-7585</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Revista del Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Rev. Inst. Nal. Enf. Resp. Mex.]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0187-7585</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0187-75852006000200012</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Manejo quirúrgico del cáncer de pulmón. Hechos y algunas reflexiones]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Surgical approaches to lung cancer. Facts and some reflections]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ibarra Pérez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Carlos]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosío Villegas Dirección de Enseñanza Rev Inst Nal Enf Resp Mex]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[México DF.]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2006</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2006</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>19</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<fpage>143</fpage>
<lpage>147</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0187-75852006000200012&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0187-75852006000200012&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0187-75852006000200012&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[El carcinoma broncogénico de células no pequeñas (CBCNP) en etapas I y II es tributario de resección completa, pero cada vez existe más evidencia de que la terapia de inducción preoperatoria y la adyuvancia posoperatoría pueden prolongar la sobrevida de enfermos en etapas IB y II. Algunos enfermos en la etapa IIIA debe recibir inducción y revalorar el mediastino por fusión TC/PET o remediastinoscopía antes de planear resección. Las etapas IIIB y IV no son operables, excepto casos muy seleccionados. Se hacen reflexiones a propósito del acceso de los enfermos de países en desarrollo a los nuevos avances médicos, farmacológicos y tecnológicos, del control del tabaquismo y de algunos aspectos éticos relacionados con el tratamiento médico y la cirugía del CBCNP.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[Stage I and II non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) should be resected, but there is mounting evidence for the use of preoperative induction and postoperative adjuvant therapy in stages IB and II, as being able to prolong life. Some patients in stage IIIA should undergo induction therapy, and then have re-staging of the mediastinum by CT/PET or redo mediastinoscopy before considering resection. Stages IIIB and IV are non-surgical, except very selected cases. Reflections are made regarding the control of cigarette smoking, the difficult access of patients from developing countries to the recent costly medical, pharmacological and technical advances; reflections are also made related to some ethical issues regarding medical and surgical treatment of NSCLC.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Adyuvancia]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[cáncer broncogénico de células no pequeñas]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[cirugía de tórax]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[fusión TC/PET]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[mediastinoscopfa]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[quimioterapia]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[resección pulmonar]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[tabaquismo]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[terapia de inducción]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Adjuvant therapy]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[chemotherapy]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[CT/ PET]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[induction therapy]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[mediastinoscopy]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[non-small cell lung carcinoma]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[pulmonary resection]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[smoking]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[thoracic surgery]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[ <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="4">Revisi&oacute;n</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="4"><b>Manejo quir&uacute;rgico del c&aacute;ncer de pulm&oacute;n. Hechos y algunas reflexiones*</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="3"><b>Surgical approaches to lung cancer. Facts ans some reflections</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Carlos Ibarra P&eacute;rez</b><img src="/img/revistas/iner/v19n2/a12s1.jpg"></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">*  <i>Presentado en parte durante el simposio: Sugerencias para un Informe de Situaci&oacute;n Sobre el Tratamiento de C&aacute;ncer de Pulm&oacute;n en Latinoam&eacute;rica, en la 2<sup>a</sup> Conferencia Latinoamericana Sobre el C&aacute;ncer Pulmonar. Abril 29, 2006. Canc&uacute;n, M&eacute;xico.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i><img src="/img/revistas/iner/v19n2/a12s1.jpg">Editor M&eacute;dico, Rev Inst Nal Enf Resp M&eacute;x.</i></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Correspondencia:</b>    <br>     <i>Dr. Carlos Ibarra P&eacute;rez.     <br>   Editor Medico: Rev Inst Nal Enf Resp Mex, Direcci&oacute;n de Ense&ntilde;anza. Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cos&iacute;o Villegas,     <br>   Calzada de Tlalpan 4502, colonia Secci&oacute;n XVI.     <br>   M&eacute;xico, DF., 14080.     <br>   Tel&eacute;fono 56664539, extensi&oacute;n 145. </i>    <br>   Correo electr&oacute;nico: <a href="mailto:ibarraperez@iner.gob.mx">ibarraperez@iner.gob.mx</a>: <a href="mailto:ibarraperez@iner.gob.mx">editorial@iner.gob.mx</a></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Trabajo recibido: 15&#150;V&#150;2006    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<br>   Aceptado: 29&#150;V&#150;2006.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>RESUMEN</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>El carcinoma broncog&eacute;nico de c&eacute;lulas no peque&ntilde;as (CBCNP) en etapas I y II es tributario de resecci&oacute;n completa, pero cada vez existe m&aacute;s evidencia de que la terapia de inducci&oacute;n preoperatoria y la adyuvancia posoperator&iacute;a pueden prolongar la sobrevida de enfermos en etapas IB y II. Algunos enfer</i><i>mos en la etapa IIIA debe recibir inducci&oacute;n </i><i>y revalorar el mediastino por fusi&oacute;n TC/</i><i>PET o remediastinoscop&iacute;a antes de planear resecci&oacute;n. Las etapas IIIB y IV no son operables, excepto casos muy seleccionados. Se hacen reflexiones a prop&oacute;sito del acceso de los enfermos de pa&iacute;ses en desarrollo a los nuevos avances m&eacute;dicos, farmacol&oacute;gicos y tecnol&oacute;gicos, del control del tabaquismo y de algunos aspectos &eacute;ticos relacionados con el tratamiento m&eacute;dico y la cirug&iacute;a del CBCNP.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Palabras clave:</b>   Adyuvancia, c&aacute;ncer broncog&eacute;nico de c&eacute;lulas no peque&ntilde;as, cirug&iacute;a de t&oacute;rax, fusi&oacute;n TC/PET, mediastinoscopfa, quimioterapia, resecci&oacute;n pulmonar, tabaquismo, terapia de inducci&oacute;n.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>ABSTRACT</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>Stage I and II non&#150;small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) should be resected, but there is mounting evidence for the use of preoperative induction and postoperative adjuvant therapy in stages IB and II, as being able to prolong life. Some patients in stage IIIA should undergo induction therapy, and then have re&#150;staging of the mediastinum by CT/PET or redo mediastinoscopy before considering resection. Stages IIIB and IV are non&#150;surgical, except very selected cases. Reflections are made regarding the control of cigarette smoking, the difficult access of patients from developing countries to the recent costly medical, pharmacological and technical advances; reflections are also made related to some ethical issues regarding medical and surgical treatment of NSCLC.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Key words: </b>Adjuvant therapy, chemotherapy, CT/ PET, induction therapy, mediastinoscopy, non&#150;small cell lung carcinoma, pulmonary resection, smoking, thoracic surgery.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los estudios de imagen permiten hacer el diagn&oacute;stico de una lesi&oacute;n veros&iacute;milmente tumoral y su etapa cl&iacute;nica. En el enfermo potencialmente operable esos estudios son la tomograf&iacute;a computada (TC) del t&oacute;rax, h&iacute;gado, r&iacute;&ntilde;ones y adrenales, resonancia magn&eacute;tica nuclear, tomograf&iacute;a corporal por emisi&oacute;n de positrones (PET) y la fusi&oacute;n PET/TC, cada uno con indicaciones especiales y valores de predicci&oacute;n particulares<sup>1&#150;</sup><sup>3</sup>; en muchos sitios, los estudios de fusi&oacute;n PET/CT ya sustituyen a otros de imagen.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Sin embargo, ninguno de ellos tiene "ojos de microscopio" y puede ser necesaria la comprobaci&oacute;n histol&oacute;gica o citol&oacute;gica por medio de biopsia de la lesi&oacute;n pulmonar o de nodos linf&aacute;ticos mediastinales por mediastinoscop&iacute;a cervical (Carlens), mediastinostom&iacute;a paraesternal (Chamberlain), mediastinoscop&iacute;a cervical ampliada (Ginsberg), o biopsia con aguja fina transtor&aacute;cica, transbronquial (Wang) o transesof&aacute;gica guiada por ultrasonido endosc&oacute;pico; la selecci&oacute;n del estudio depende del grado de sospecha de malignidad de la lesi&oacute;n, comorbilidades, as&iacute; como disponibilidad y experiencia con los procedimientos. Cada uno requiere de habilidades espec&iacute;ficas, tiene riesgos propios e involucra consideraciones t&eacute;cnicas que los hacen m&aacute;s o menos id&oacute;neos para lesiones en sitios particulares<sup>4,</sup><sup>5</sup>. Otros procedimientos &uacute;tiles para el diagn&oacute;stico y la estadificaci&oacute;n pueden ser la toracocentesis, la biopsia pleural cerrada con aguja cortante (Abram, Cope), la biopsia pleural o pulmonar perif&eacute;rica toracosc&oacute;pica o por minitoracotom&iacute;a, as&iacute; como la biopsia de otros tejidos tor&aacute;cicos o extrator&aacute;cicos por aguja fina, incisi&oacute;n o escisi&oacute;n. La evidencia anatomopatol&oacute;gica es obligada cuando los estudios de imagen, aun TC/PET se&ntilde;alan un solo sitio mediastinal o extrator&aacute;cico como positivo, en un enfermo que es quir&uacute;rgico, excepto por ese hallazgo; dicho en otras palabras, a menos que haya evidencia abrumadora de invasi&oacute;n o enfermedad metast&aacute;sica en los estudios de imagen, toda anormalidad requiere de confirmaci&oacute;n histol&oacute;gica, de tal manera que no se niegue al enfermo la posibilidad de cirug&iacute;a potencialmente curativa ante una imagen "sospechosa" o "diagn&oacute;stica".</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Las v&iacute;as de acceso para abordar el t&oacute;rax y realizar la resecci&oacute;n dependen de la localizaci&oacute;n del tumor, preferencia personal, sitio de trabajo, disponibilidad de instrumental, etc&eacute;tera. Las m&aacute;s frecuentemente usadas son la toracotom&iacute;a lateral idealmente conservadora de m&uacute;sculo, la posterolateral, la incisi&oacute;n transversal con esternotom&iacute;a parcial en media concha de almeja, la cervicotor&aacute;cica (para tumor de Pancoast) y la anterolateral<sup>6&#150;</sup><sup>7</sup>; en los &uacute;ltimos a&ntilde;os se usan los accesos m&iacute;nimos por videotoracoscop&iacute;a .</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Una vez dentro del t&oacute;rax, el cirujano puede optar (seg&uacute;n el tama&ntilde;o, localizaci&oacute;n y estructuras involucradas), por realizar segmentectom&iacute;a, tumorectom&iacute;a precisa, resecci&oacute;n en cu&ntilde;a, lobectom&iacute;a, bilobectom&iacute;a derecha, neumonectom&iacute;a, resecci&oacute;n pl&aacute;stica de tr&aacute;quea y/o bronquios con o sin resecci&oacute;n pl&aacute;stica de arteria pulmonar principal (manguito), con o sin resecci&oacute;n de par&eacute;nquima pulmonar<sup>8</sup>. En enfermos en etapa NIB, con T4 N0&#150;1 M0, muy seleccionados, se puede intentar la resecci&oacute;n pulmonar m&aacute;s fragmentos de pared costal, v&eacute;rtebras, todo tipo de estructuras mediastinales o de vasos y algunos nervios del op&eacute;rculo tor&aacute;cico<sup>9&#150;11</sup>.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En casos muy seleccionados se puede realizar la resecci&oacute;n de met&aacute;stasis sincr&oacute;nica aislada en algunos &oacute;rganos (M1), m&aacute;s resecci&oacute;n pulmonar<sup>12</sup>.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En el momento actual, se acepta que para la etapa IA &#151;tumor de menos de 3 cm sin enfermedad nodal linf&aacute;tica intrapulmonar ni mediastinales suficiente la resecci&oacute;n completa; no se requiere tratamiento m&eacute;dico de inducci&oacute;n ni de adyuvancia.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Las etapas IB, IIA y IIB son tambi&eacute;n quir&uacute;rgicas, pero probablemente deban recibir tratamiento m&eacute;dico, pues existe informaci&oacute;n sobre el efecto ben&eacute;fico en la supervivencia de la quimioterapia de inducci&oacute;n<sup>13</sup> en ellos, as&iacute; como de la adyuvancia<sup>14,</sup><sup>15</sup>, de modo que se les puede considerar tributarias de una u otra, aunque las gu&iacute;as de enero de 2003, a&uacute;n vigentes<sup>16</sup>, no lo consideran as&iacute;, excepto en protocolo. En nuestro medio, lamentablemente, apenas el 6.98% de los enfermos llega en etapas I y II<sup>11</sup>.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Algunos enfermos en etapa IIIA, hasta T3 y N1 &#150;2, en particular los IIIA<sub>3</sub><sup>17</sup>, tambi&eacute;n deben recibir inducci&oacute;n con quimioterapia<sup>18,</sup><sup>19</sup> y luego ser revalorados por fusi&oacute;n TC/PET y/o remediastinoscop&iacute;a<sup>20</sup> antes de proceder a la resecci&oacute;n.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los enfermos en etapas IIIB y IV son tributarios de tratamiento no quir&uacute;rgico, aunque excepcionalmente pueden operarse casos muy seleccionados y siempre como parte de tratamiento multimodal<sup>9&#150;12</sup>.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Ahora bien, los hechos anteriormente mencionados se basan en informaci&oacute;n proveniente de estudios protocolizados, con tratamiento m&eacute;dico y quir&uacute;rgico llevado a cabo por especialistas certificados por los consejos id&oacute;neos. Lamentablemente, ello no ocurre en el mundo real, en donde existe una competencia monetaria feroz y en donde el tipo de tratamiento depende muchas veces de qui&eacute;n es el m&eacute;dico que atiende primero al enfermo<sup>21</sup>.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Aunque no parece haber duda sobre el hecho de que todo enfermo candidato a cirug&iacute;a debe de ser valorado por un cirujano educado y certificado en cirug&iacute;a tor&aacute;cica (evidencia, buena; beneficio, sustancial; recomendaci&oacute;n A)<sup>16</sup>, existe evidencia de que una buena parte de la cirug&iacute;a tor&aacute;cica de los tumores malignos del t&oacute;rax y la mediastinoscopia preoperatoria, la llevan a cabo cirujanos que ignoran principios oncol&oacute;gico&#150;quir&uacute;rgicos b&aacute;sicos<sup>22</sup>: a) siempre que sea posible, el tumor y sus tributarios linf&aacute;ticos intrapulmonares deben ser removidos por completo, b) el tumor y las estructuras invadidas deben resecarse en una sola pieza, sin romper su integridad anat&oacute;mica ni desparramar tumor en el campo operatorio, c) la resecci&oacute;n debe ser con m&aacute;rgenes bronquiales, vasculares y de otro tipo, macrosc&oacute;picamente suficientes y negativos por microscop&iacute;a transope&#150;ratoria; si se hallan m&aacute;rgenes positivos se debe reescindir, d) la resecci&oacute;n se debe acompa&ntilde;ar de disecci&oacute;n y mareaje cuidadoso de todos los nodos linf&aacute;ticos mediastinales homolaterales, cuando menos muestreo de ellos. As&iacute; pues, no es aceptable que un c&aacute;ncer pulmonar curable sea tratado de manera descuidada, sin prestar atenci&oacute;n a estos principios<sup>22</sup>y que el enfermo abandone el quir&oacute;fano peor de como ingres&oacute; a &eacute;l; es decir, con tumor residual y sin estadificar correctamente.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">A prop&oacute;sito, recientemente<sup>23</sup> se encontr&oacute; que de 11,688 operados en Estados Unidos, el 12.3% se encontraba en etapas IIIB &#150;hasta T4 o hasta N3&#150; y IV &#150;con met&aacute;stasis&#150;, enfermos excepcionalmente operables como ya se dijo y que de los 687 operados en etapa IV &#150;6% del total&#150; un incre&iacute;ble 16.9% ten&iacute;a cuando menos met&aacute;stasis en dos sitios y que a pesar de ello se les practicaron resecciones en cu&ntilde;a, lobectom&iacute;as y aun neumonectom&iacute;as; de esos 11,688 enfermos, s&oacute;lo al 27.1 % se les realiz&oacute; medias&#150;tinoscop&iacute;a preoperatoria, pero s&oacute;lo se tomaron nodos linf&aacute;ticos en el 46.6% de ellas, datos que confirma otro estudio, de Holanda, en donde apenas en el 40% de los enfermos se realiz&oacute; la mediastinoscop&iacute;a de acuerdo con est&aacute;ndares de oro<sup>24</sup>.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En el mismo estudio<sup>23</sup> se encontraron m&aacute;rgenes quir&uacute;rgicos positivos en el 7.8% de las resecciones, pero s&oacute;lo al 65.2% de los enfermos se le realiz&oacute; estudio histol&oacute;gico transoperatorio de esos m&aacute;rgenes y se tomaron nodos linf&aacute;ticos del mediastino durante la intervenci&oacute;n quir&uacute;rgica &uacute;nicamente al 42.2%.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Que la mediastinoscop&iacute;a sistem&aacute;ticamente produce muchos nodos linf&aacute;ticos, que la operabilidad, la resecabilidad y el n&uacute;mero de resecciones completas aumentan y que el porcentaje de neumonectom&iacute;as y la mortalidad operatoria disminuyen cuando un cirujano tor&aacute;cico especializado con un alto volumen de operaciones se hace cargo de la cirug&iacute;a oncol&oacute;gica ha quedado demostrado una y otra vez<sup>24&#150;32</sup>, de tal manera que no hay ninguna explicaci&oacute;n &eacute;ticamente plausible que justifique los hechos mencionados.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Respecto a la discusi&oacute;n sobre la conveniencia de hacer s&oacute;lo muestreo de los grupos nodales linf&aacute;ticos homolaterales, o bien una disecci&oacute;n completa de ellos, cada vez existe m&aacute;s informaci&oacute;n acerca de la conveniencia de resecar el mayor n&uacute;mero posible, idealmente realizando un verdadero "barrido" de arriba a abajo, marcando los diferentes grupos muy cuidadosamente para el pat&oacute;logo. El mayor tiempo invertido en el procedimiento no se acompa&ntilde;a de aumento de la morbilidad ni de la mortalidad y s&iacute; de una mejor estadificaci&oacute;n, con posibilidad de dar adyuvancia en caso necesario y de un aumento de la sobrevida<sup>33&#150;39</sup>. Recordemos que el estado de los nodos linf&aacute;ticos tor&aacute;cicos es el determinante fundamental del pron&oacute;stico en los enfermos con c&aacute;ncer broncog&eacute;nico de c&eacute;lulas no peque&ntilde;as (CBCNP) resecable, de modo que la estadificaci&oacute;n mediastinal correcta es indispensable para predecir la sobrevida a largo plazo, por lo que una estadificaci&oacute;n incompleta e incorrecta negar&iacute;a el beneficio de la quimioterapia posoperatoria a esos enfermos<sup>39,</sup><sup>40</sup>.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En funci&oacute;n de lo anterior, y de que los avances m&eacute;dicos, farmacol&oacute;gicos, t&eacute;cnicos, etc&eacute;tera, han encarecido el ejercicio m&eacute;dico de tal manera que la mayor&iacute;a de los enfermos de los pa&iacute;ses en desarrollo tienen grandes dificultades para acceder a ellos, vale la pena hacernos algunas reflexiones y preguntas:</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">1. Si aceptamos que la mayor&iacute;a de los casos de CBCNP se relacionan al h&aacute;bito tab&aacute;quico .. .&iquest;qu&eacute; podemos hacer individual y colectivamente para <i>evitar </i>que los ni&ntilde;os empiecen a fumar?</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">2. &iquest;Qu&eacute; podemos hacer para tener disponible broncoscop&iacute;a con fluorescencia <i>barata </i>para todos los enfermos de alto riesgo?</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">3. &iquest;Qu&eacute; podemos hacer para tener disponible fusi&oacute;n TC/ PET <i>barata </i>para todo enfermo potencialmente operable y evitar toracotom&iacute;as innecesarias, entre otras cosas?</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">4. &iquest;Podremos tener estadificaci&oacute;n molecular&#150;bioqu&iacute;mica <i>barata </i>para los enfermos en quienes se hace biopsia pre o transoperatoria de nodos linf&aacute;ticos mediastinales<sup>41</sup> y ofrecer terapia de inducci&oacute;n o adyuvancia <i>baratas, </i>seg&uacute;n el caso?</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">5. &iquest;Podremos anteponer el inter&eacute;s del enfermo a <i>otros </i>intereses y referirlo siempre al especialista m&eacute;dico o quir&uacute;rgico id&oacute;neo?<sup>21</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Finalmente, como a&uacute;n parece muy distante el control del tabaquismo y mucho m&aacute;s su control y desaparici&oacute;n como h&aacute;bito de fatales consecuencias, as&iacute; como la identificaci&oacute;n total y el control de otros carcinogen&eacute;ticos en los ambientes casero y laboral, esperamos a&uacute;n poder ver quimioprevenci&oacute;n efectiva, modificaci&oacute;n de genes responsables de estos tumores, identificaci&oacute;n bioqu&iacute;mica y control de ellos en etapa microsc&oacute;pica as&iacute; como el uso de anticuerpos, bloqueadores y vacunas espec&iacute;ficos antineoplasia que hagan ver a la quimioterapia, la radioterapia y a la cirug&iacute;a del c&aacute;ncer broncog&eacute;nico como una aberraci&oacute;n, no muy diferente a como hoy vemos la curaci&oacute;n de las heridas con aceite hirviendo de hace apenas un par de siglos<sup>11</sup>.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>REFERENCIAS</b></font></p>     <!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">1. <b>Toloza EM, Harpole L, McCrory DC. </b><i>Noninvasive staging of non&#150;small cell lung cancer, a review of the current evidence. </i>Chest 2003; 123(1 Suppl): 137&#150;146.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6959580&pid=S0187-7585200600020001200001&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">2. <b>Silvestri GA, Tanoue LT, Margolis ML, Barker J, Detterbeck F. </b><i>The noninvasive staging of non&#150;small cell lung cancer: the guidelines. </i>Chest 2003; 123(1 Suppl): 147&#150;156.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6959581&pid=S0187-7585200600020001200002&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">3. <b>Gamez C, Rosell R, Fernandez A, et al. </b><i>PET/CT fusion scan in lung cancer: current recommendations and innovations. </i>J Thorac Oncol 2006: 1:74&#150;77.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6959582&pid=S0187-7585200600020001200003&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">4. <b>Toloza EM, Harpole L, Detterbeck F, McCrory DC. </b><i>Invasive staging of non&#150;small cell lung cancer: a review of the current evidence. </i>Chest 2003; 123(1 Suppl):157&#150;166.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6959583&pid=S0187-7585200600020001200004&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">5. <b>Detterbeck FC, DeCamp MM Jr, Kohman LJ, Silvestri </b>GA. <i>Invasive staging: the guidelines. </i>Chest 2003:123(1 Suppl): 167&#150;175.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=6959584&pid=S0187-7585200600020001200005&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">6. <b>Murthy SC, Rice TW. </b><i>Thoracic incisions. </i>In: <b>Pearson FG, Cooper JD, Deslauriers J, et al, editors. </b><i>Thoracic surgery. </i>2<sup>a</sup> ed. 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