<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0188-4611</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Investigaciones geográficas]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Invest. Geog]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0188-4611</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Geografía]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0188-46112002000100004</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Modelamiento hidrológico espacialmente distribuido: una revisión de sus componentes, niveles de integración e implicaciones en la estimación de procesos hidrológicos en cuencas no instrumentadas]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Spatially distributed hydrological modeling: a review of components, integration levels and implications for estimating hydrological processes in non-instrumented basins]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mendoza]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Manuel]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Bocco]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Gerardo]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Bravo]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Miguel]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A02"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Siebe]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Christina]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A03"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ortiz]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Mario Arturo]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A04"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Instituto da Ecología ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[Morelia Michoacán]]></addr-line>
<country>México</country>
</aff>
<aff id="A02">
<institution><![CDATA[,Centro Nacional de Investigación para Producción Sostenible Información institucional acciones realizadas y propuesta de desincorporación ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ Michoacán]]></addr-line>
<country>México</country>
</aff>
<aff id="A03">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Instituto de Geología ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[México D. F.]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A04">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Instituto de Geografía ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[México D. F.]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2002</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2002</year>
</pub-date>
<numero>47</numero>
<fpage>36</fpage>
<lpage>58</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0188-46112002000100004&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0188-46112002000100004&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0188-46112002000100004&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[En este artículo se revisan y discuten las técnicas de percepción remota (PR) y sistemas de información geográfica (SIG), así como el conocimiento geomorfológico ligado al modelamiento hidrológico espacialmente distribuido. La discusión permitió definir cuatro grupos, en los cuales se integran las distintas técnicas de percepción remota (PR), sistemas de ínformación geográfica (SIG) y el conocimiento geomorfológico aplicado a entender las implicaciones ambientales de la degradación de tierras y de manejo de recursos, especialmente en países subdesarrollados Los grupos son: a) modelamiento hidrológico y SIG; b) PR y modelos hidrológicos; c) modelamiento hidrológico, PR y SIG, y d) integración del conocimiento geornorfológico, PR y la aplicación de SIG al modelamiento hidrológico.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[This article reviews and discusses the remote sensing (RS) techniques and geographic information systems (GIS), as well as the geomorphological knowledge associated to spatially distributed hydrological modeling. The discussion allowed to defined four groups which Integrate the different Remote Sensing (RS) techniques, Geographic Information systems (GIS) and the geomorphological knowledge oriented to understand the environmental implications of land degradation and resource management, especially in developing countries. Groups include: a) hydrological modeling and GIS; b) RS and hydrological models; hydrological modeling, RS and GIS; and d) integration of the geomorphological knowledge, RS and GIS application to hydrological modelling.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Modelamiento hidrológico espacialmente distribuido]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[percepción remota]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[sistemas de información geográfica]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[conocimiento geomorfológico]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[cuencas no instrumentadas]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Spatially distributed hydrological modeling]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[remote sensing]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[geographic information systems]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[geomorphological knowledge]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[non-instrumented basins]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[  	    <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="4"><b>Modelamiento hidrol&oacute;gico espacialmente distribuido: una revisi&oacute;n de sus componentes, niveles de integraci&oacute;n e implicaciones en la estimaci&oacute;n de procesos hidrol&oacute;gicos en cuencas no instrumentadas</b></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="3"><b>Spatially distributed hydrological modeling: a review of components, integration levels and implications for estimating hydrological processes in non&#45;instrumented basins</b></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Manuel Mendoza* Gerardo Bocco*&ordf; Miguel Bravo** Christina Siebe*** Mario Arturo Ortiz***</b></font></p>  	    <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">*<i>Instituto da Ecolog&iacute;a, UNAM, Antigua Carretera a P&aacute;tzcuaro 8701, Col. Ex Hacienda San Jos&eacute; de La Huerta, 58190, Morelia, Michoac&aacute;n, M&eacute;xico, a) Direcci&oacute;n actual: Direcci&oacute;n General de Investigaci&oacute;n de Ordenamiento Ecol&oacute;gico y Conservaci&oacute;n de los Ecosistemas, Instituto Nacional de Ecolog&iacute;a&#45;SEMARNAT. E&#45;mail: <a href="mailto:mmendoza@olkos.unam">mmendoza@olkos.unam</a>, <a href="mailto:mgbocco@oikos.unam.mx">mgbocco@oikos.unam.mx</a></i></font></p>      <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">**<i>CENAPROS&#45;INIFAP, Km 18.5 Carretera Morelia&#45;Aeropuerto, &Aacute;lvaro Obreg&oacute;n, Michoac&aacute;n, M&eacute;xico. E&#45;mail: <a href="mailto:bravo_miguel@infosel.net.mx">bravo_miguel@infosel.net.mx</a></i></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>***Instituto de Geolog&iacute;a, UNAM, Circuito Exterior, Cd. Universitaria, 04510, M&eacute;xico D. F. E&#45;mail: </i><a href="mailto:maop@igiris.igeograf.unam.mx">siebe@servidor.unam.mx</a></font></p>      ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>****Instituto de Geograf&iacute;a, UNAM, Circuito Exterior, Cd. Universitaria, 04510, M&eacute;xico D. F. E&#45;mail: <a href="mailto:maop@iglris.igeograf.unam.mx">maop@iglris.igeograf.unam.mx</a></i></font></p>  	    <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Recibido: 4 de julio de 2001    <br> 	Aceptado en versi&oacute;n final: 4 de abril de 2002</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Resumen</b></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En este art&iacute;culo se revisan y discuten las t&eacute;cnicas de percepci&oacute;n remota (PR) y sistemas de informaci&oacute;n geogr&aacute;fica (SIG), as&iacute; como el conocimiento geomorfol&oacute;gico ligado al modelamiento hidrol&oacute;gico espacialmente distribuido. La discusi&oacute;n permiti&oacute; definir cuatro grupos, en los cuales se integran las distintas t&eacute;cnicas de percepci&oacute;n remota (PR), sistemas de &iacute;nformaci&oacute;n geogr&aacute;fica (SIG) y el conocimiento geomorfol&oacute;gico aplicado a entender las implicaciones ambientales de la degradaci&oacute;n de tierras y de manejo de recursos, especialmente en pa&iacute;ses subdesarrollados Los grupos son: <i>a)</i> modelamiento hidrol&oacute;gico y SIG; <i>b)</i> PR y modelos hidrol&oacute;gicos; <i>c)</i> modelamiento hidrol&oacute;gico, PR y SIG, y <i>d)</i> integraci&oacute;n del conocimiento geornorfol&oacute;gico, PR <i>y</i> la aplicaci&oacute;n de <i>SIG al</i> modelamiento hidrol&oacute;gico.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Palabras clave:</b> Modelamiento hidrol&oacute;gico espacialmente distribuido, percepci&oacute;n remota, sistemas de informaci&oacute;n geogr&aacute;fica, conocimiento geomorfol&oacute;gico, cuencas no instrumentadas.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Abstract</b></font></p>  	    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">This article reviews and discusses the remote sensing (RS) techniques and geographic information systems (GIS), as well as the geomorphological knowledge associated to spatially distributed hydrological modeling. The discussion allowed to defined four groups which Integrate the different Remote Sensing (RS) techniques, Geographic Information systems (GIS) and the geomorphological knowledge oriented to understand the environmental implications of land degradation and resource management, especially in developing countries. Groups include: a) hydrological modeling and GIS; b) RS and hydrological models; hydrological modeling, RS and GIS; and d) integration of the geomorphological knowledge, RS and GIS application to hydrological modelling.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Key words:</b> Spatially distributed hydrological modeling, remote sensing, geographic information systems, geomorphological knowledge, non&#45;instrumented basins.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>INTRODUCCI&Oacute;N</b></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El ciclo hidrol&oacute;gico, t&eacute;rmino que describe la circulaci&oacute;n y almacenamiento de agua en la tierra (Maidment, 1993a), es afectado por la influencia humana a diferentes escalas, desde la local hasta la planetaria <i>(Committee on Opportunities in the Hydrologie Sciences.</i> 1991).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El efecto del cambio de la cobertura vegetal y uso del suelo (CCVUS) asociado con la expansi&oacute;n de la agricultura y ganader&iacute;a ha tenido una profunda influencia en los procesos hidrol&oacute;gicos en peque&ntilde;as cuencas y a nivel regional (Sahagian, 2000).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El manejo de&#45;cuencas proporciona el marco conceptual, espacial e integral que permite el manejo ecosist&eacute;mico de recursos naturales, el cual minimiza los efectos del CCVUS. Actualmente, este marco conceptual es la mejor opci&oacute;n para el manejo y conservaci&oacute;n de recursos naturales (Ersten, 1999; Jain <i>et ai.,</i> 2000). El ciclo del agua regula la variabilidad natural de los procesos f&iacute;sicos que impactan el ecosistema (Elkaduwa y Sakthivadivel, 1998). Sin embargo, los hidr&oacute;logos no pueden diagnosticar r&aacute;pidamente las condiciones a nivel regional, si los datos hidrol&oacute;gicos son insuficientes para este nivel de an&aacute;lisis (Bergstr&ouml;m y Graham, 1998). El problema se resuelve cuantificando los procesos hidrol&oacute;gicos en per&iacute;odos del orden de varios a&ntilde;os o bien, simulando los procesos hidrol&oacute;gicos (Bastiaanssen, 2000a).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Algunas de las necesidades urgentes que deben ser resueltas por este tipo de estudio cient&iacute;fico y evaluaci&oacute;n t&eacute;cnica son: <i>a)</i> la localizaci&oacute;n y magnitud de las fuentes de agua, <i>b)</i> an&aacute;lisis de la distribuci&oacute;n, duraci&oacute;n, intensidad, frecuencia y fecha de inicio de la sequ&iacute;a o inundaci&oacute;n, entre otros (Sehmi y Kunzewicz, 1992). Adem&aacute;s, se debe considerar el crecimiento de la poblaci&oacute;n, nivel de desarrollo econ&oacute;mico, cambio clim&aacute;tico, variabilidad clim&aacute;tica, uso actual y futuro del agua existente y asequible para diferentes actividades humanas.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El objetivo de este art&iacute;culo es describir y analizar los diferentes enfoques en el an&aacute;lisis espacial de la distribuci&oacute;n del agua, principalmente superficial y a escala regional, y especialmente en &aacute;reas donde existe escasez de datos hidrometeorol&oacute;gicos. Se har&aacute; &eacute;nfasis en la integraci&oacute;n de m&eacute;todos indirectos: percepci&oacute;n remota (PR), sistemas de informaci&oacute;n geogr&aacute;fica (SIG) y conocimiento geomorfol&oacute;gico.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>LA PROBLEM&Aacute;TICA DE LA ESTIMACI&Oacute;N DE VARIABLES HIDROL&Oacute;GICAS</b></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En muchas &aacute;reas del planeta, espec&iacute;ficamente en pa&iacute;ses subdesarrollados, la investigaci&oacute;n hidrol&oacute;gica se dificulta por la escasez de series confiables de datos de largo plazo, ya que obstaculizan la aplicaci&oacute;n y desarrollo de modelos hidrol&oacute;gicos. En muchas regiones las redes hidrometeorol&oacute;gicas son muy poco densas e incluso inexistentes debido, entre otras razones, a que su establecimiento y mantenimiento es oneroso, particularmente, por el costo del equipo, su operaci&oacute;n y el desarrollo de bases de datos.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Lo anterior motiva la necesidad de desarrollar m&eacute;todos indirectos, pero es preciso se&ntilde;alar que el establecimiento de redes de estaciones de aforo se debe impulsar por su importancia en la generaci&oacute;n de registros para validar modelos o para evaluar pr&aacute;cticas de manejo de cuencas (Olsson y Pilesjo, 1999; Bastiaanssen, 2000a y 2000b).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">De acuerdo con una perspectiva no convencional, los m&eacute;todos indirectos requieren reconocer las caracter&iacute;sticas y distribuci&oacute;n espacial de escurrimientos y los componentes bi&oacute;ticos y abi&oacute;ticos de las cuencas, as&iacute; como las relaciones espaciales y temporales entre &eacute;stos (Schaumm, 1964; Ward, 1979; Verstappen, 1983; Meijerink, 1996; entre otros).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>MODELOS, T&Eacute;CNICAS Y HERRAMIENTAS EN EL AN&Aacute;LISIS HIDROL&Oacute;GICO</b></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Modelos hidrol&oacute;gicos</b></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Un modelo hidrol&oacute;gico puede ser definido como una simplificaci&oacute;n de un sistema natural. Tradicionalmente, los modelos hidrol&oacute;gicos se agrupan en modelos basados en procesos f&iacute;sicos y modelos conceptuales (Bergstr&ouml;m, 1991). Los modelos conceptuales son aquellos que manifiestan el entendimiento de un proceso; este modelo puede ser representado por un modelo matem&aacute;tico o f&iacute;sico. Los modelas f&iacute;sicos describen el sistema natural con base en (a elaboraci&oacute;n de un prototipo, que puede tener una representaci&oacute;n matem&aacute;tica utilizando las leyes de conservaci&oacute;n de masa, momento y varias formas de energ&iacute;a. Desde el punto de vista matem&aacute;tico, los modelos pueden ser emp&iacute;ricos y te&oacute;ricos, y con soluci&oacute;n anal&oacute;gica o num&eacute;rica. Si las variables presentan un comportamiento aleatorio o no, pueden ser clasificados como estoc&aacute;sticos o determin&iacute;sticos (Brooks <i>et al.,</i> 1992).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Adicionalmente, existen los modelos agregados y distribuidos, dependiendo del grado de discretizaci&oacute;n en la descripci&oacute;n de las caracter&iacute;sticas de la cuenca (por ejemplo variabilidad espacial de los par&aacute;metros o variables de entrada o salida; Meijerink <i>et al.,</i> 1994). Para la aplicaci&oacute;n de modelos espacialmente distribuidos, las cuencas son regularmente divididas en unidades de respuesta hidrol&oacute;gica, subcuencas y laderas representativas (Kite y Kouwen, 1992: Kite, 1993; Bergstr&ouml;m y Graham, 1998).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La construcci&oacute;n de modelos mensuales de precipitaci&oacute;n&#45;escurrimiento y balance h&iacute;drico (BH) son herramientas para el manejo de recursos h&iacute;dricos, especialmente a nivel regional (Xu y Sing, 1998; Xu, 1999). Existe consenso en que las estimaciones indirectas del BH son &uacute;tiles en el an&aacute;lisis del efecto del CCVUS (Harbor. 1994; Bhaduri <i>et al.,</i> 1997), cambio clim&aacute;tico a largo plazo (Gleick, 1987; 1986; V&ouml;r&ouml;smaity y Moore, 1991; McGuffie <i>et al.,</i> 1998; Xu. 2000).</font></p>      ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Estos modelos hidrol&oacute;gicos deben cumplir dos condiciones: <i>a)</i> los datos necesarios para la calibraci&oacute;n deben ser accesibles y <i>b)</i> la calibraci&oacute;n debe ser sencilla. La &uacute;ltima condici&oacute;n tiene que ver con los requerimientos de un modelo hidrol&oacute;gico, especialmente cuando los datos son escasos, de esta manera pocos par&aacute;metros deben ser seleccionados para su utilizaci&oacute;n (las caracter&iacute;sticas de la cuenca son desconocidas y deben ser estimadas). Xu y Vandewiele (1994) recomiendan cautela con respecto al n&uacute;mero de par&aacute;metros a utilizar.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Cuando las relaciones entre las caracter&iacute;sticas f&iacute;sicas de la cuenca de drenaje (rocas, suelos y cobertura vegetal), y la respuesta hidrol&oacute;gica est&aacute; establecida, el comportamiento hidrol&oacute;gico de la cuenca puede ser bastante bien predicho sin la medici&oacute;n directa de procesos (Meijerink <i>et al.,</i> 1994; Meijerink y Mannaerts, 2000: Mendoza <i>et al..</i> 2002). Por consideraciones pr&aacute;cticas, no es posible y en muchos casos no es necesario, utilizar todas las caracter&iacute;sticas f&iacute;sicas de la cuenca (Vandewiele <i>et al.,</i> 1991). El desarrollo de modelos predictivos relacionados con los par&aacute;metros de la cuenca se apoya en el uso de an&aacute;lisis de regresi&oacute;n, incluyendo an&aacute;lisis de residuales, sensibilidad al per&iacute;odo de calibraci&oacute;n y evaluaci&oacute;n de la extrapolaci&oacute;n. En particular, en estos modelos se utilizan t&eacute;cnicas de calibraci&oacute;n autom&aacute;tica porque excluye elementos subjetivos (Vandewiele ef <i>al..</i> 1992).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El modelo que integra a la hidrolog&iacute;a subterr&aacute;nea, la hidrometeorolog&iacute;a y las caracter&iacute;sticas f&iacute;sicas de la cuenca es conocido como balance BH (Thorhnwaite y Matter, 1955), &Eacute;ste se refiere al c&oacute;mputo de las entradas y las salidas de agua, y energ&iacute;a en una cuenca. La entrada principal es la precipitaci&oacute;n y las salidas se refieren a los flujos de agua ocasionados por evapotranspiraci&oacute;n, recarga de aguas subterr&aacute;neas y escurrimiento. El balance puede calcularse para un perfil de suelo, una parcela o una cuenca. En esencia, el m&eacute;todo deber&iacute;a permitir calcular un registro continuo de la humedad del suelo, la evapotranspiraci&oacute;n actual, la recarga del acu&iacute;fero a partir de registros meteorol&oacute;gicos limitados y observaciones de vegetaci&oacute;n y suelos (Dunne y Leopold, 1978).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El problema es que generalmente el modelo de BH no representa un funcionamiento equivalente al de campo; sin embargo, el sesgo es minimizado cuando las clases de mapeo se limitan &uacute;nicamente a tres o cuatro clases relativas (alta, media y baja) que definen el comportamiento de los diversos componentes del BH (Meijerink <i>et al.,</i> 1994 y Meijerink, 2000).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Dunne y Leopold (1978), y Brooks ef <i>al.</i> (1992) indican que el modelo de BH tiene gran poder en la planeaci&oacute;n del uso del agua, predicci&oacute;n del impacto sobre el ciclo hidrol&oacute;gico y de los efectos hidrol&oacute;gicos provocados por las modificaciones del medio (por ejemplo, CCVUS). Considerando el caso mas simple, bajo condiciones naturales (p.e. sin extracciones por bombeo), con referencia a una cuenca en donde coinciden los limites topogr&aacute;fico y fre&aacute;tico, y donde el agua subterr&aacute;nea ocurre en acu&iacute;feros no confinados, el balance de agua se representa con la siguiente ecuaci&oacute;n (Dingman, 1994; Freeze y Cherry, 1979):</font></p>  	    <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>P &#45; Q &#45; ETA = R<sub>1</sub> + R<sub>sw</sub>) &#45; CR &#45; Q<sub>GW</sub></i></font></p>      <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">donde P es precipitaci&oacute;n, Q es el escurrimiento superficial, ETA es la evapotranspiraci&oacute;n actual, (R<i><sub>1</sub></i> + R<sub>sw</sub>) es la recarga del acu&iacute;fero (por infiltraci&oacute;n o desde cuerpos de agua superficiales), CR es el movimiento del agua subterr&aacute;nea hacia la zona de capilaridad y Q<sub>GW</sub> la contribuci&oacute;n del agua subterr&aacute;nea al caudal de corrientes naturales. Todos los componentes representan flujos o almacenamientos sobre per&iacute;odos de tiempo arbitrarios.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Para los fines de este trabajo se har&aacute; &eacute;nfasis en el c&aacute;lculo de los t&eacute;rminos del lado izquierdo de la ecuaci&oacute;n, particularmente para cuencas que carecen de registros de aforo. La estimaci&oacute;n de los t&eacute;rminos del lado derecho escapan a los prop&oacute;sitos de este trabajo, sin embargo, se abordar&aacute;n en t&eacute;rminos generales.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Modelos espacialmente distribuidos en hidrolog&iacute;a</b></font></p>  	    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El desarrollo de la computaci&oacute;n y de &iexcl;os SIG y la PR han estimulado la construcci&oacute;n de modelos hidrol&oacute;gicos espacialmente distribuidos (MHED) desde los a&ntilde;os setenta (Rango, 1985; Stuebe y Johnson, 1990). Un modelo distribuido considera la variaci&oacute;n espacial en todos sus par&aacute;metros y variables en cada punto de la cuenca. Si un modelo presenta este tipo de estructura es compatible directamente con datos producidos por PR y SIG de formato de celdas. En la extensi&oacute;n vertical, cada celda puede dar una profundidad o ser discretizada en un n&uacute;mero de celdas sobrepuestas (por ejemplo columnas). Para cada celda la descarga de agua hacia la celda vecina se calcula de acuerdo con el proceso hidrol&oacute;gico activo; de esta manera, la distribuci&oacute;n del flujo de agua dentro de la cuenca se representa a trav&eacute;s de mapas (Olsson y Pilesjo, 1999).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La investigaci&oacute;n en MHED sobre grandes regiones se basa en la investigaci&oacute;n hidrol&oacute;gica de procesos (Venneker y Bruijinzeel, 1997). De esta manera, se construyen modelos hidrol&oacute;gicos de macroescala, los cuales pueden ser ejecutados en forma repetida sobre grandes &aacute;reas geogr&aacute;ficas (Arnell, 1999).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los MHED se han utilizado para evaluar las condiciones hidrol&oacute;gicas (escorrent&iacute;a, infiltraci&oacute;n, recarga de acu&iacute;feros); el estado de la vegetaci&oacute;n (densidad, calidad), y el cambio clim&aacute;tico en amplias regiones geogr&aacute;ficas (Neilson, 1995; Najjar, 1999). De hecho, los modelos distribuidos pueden aplicarse a cualquier clase de problema hidrol&oacute;gico incluidas las predicciones en cuencas no instrumentadas (Refsgaard, 1996).</font></p>      <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El n&uacute;mero de variables y par&aacute;metros de un MHED es mucho mayor que el n&uacute;mero que incluye un modelo agrupado para la misma &aacute;rea. Esto genera dificultades en la parametrizaci&oacute;n, calibraci&oacute;n y validaci&oacute;n del modelo distribuido. Una de las mayores cr&iacute;ticas a estos modelos es la modificaci&oacute;n de un gran n&uacute;mero de par&aacute;metros durante la fase de calibraci&oacute;n (Beven, 1996). Existen diversas revisiones sobre la calibraci&oacute;n y validaci&oacute;n de modelos en cuencas Instrumentadas que no se discutir&aacute;n en el presente art&iacute;culo (Rosso, 1994, Refsgaard y Storm, 1996, Refsgaard, 1997).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En cuencas no instrumentas la validaci&oacute;n de MHED ofrece uno de los mayores retos del modelamiento de procesos. Dentro de este reto algunas de las preguntas que se pueden formular son: qu&eacute; tipo de mediciones se deben realizar en la cuenca para evaluar la capacidad predictiva de un modelo, por ejemplo, de precipitaci&oacute;n&#45;escurrimiento. De &eacute;stas, cu&aacute;l tiene una mayor capacidad de discretizaci&oacute;n en la evaluaci&oacute;n del modelo. La respuesta a estas y otras preguntas deben relacionarse, entre otros aspectos, con el prop&oacute;sito de la evaluaci&oacute;n y la utilizaci&oacute;n de las predicciones del modelo.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>INTEGRACI&Oacute;N DE MODELOS Y HERRAMIENTAS</b></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Aportes de los SIG a la hidrolog&iacute;a</b></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Un sistema de informaci&oacute;n geogr&aacute;fica (SIG) est&aacute; dise&ntilde;ado para analizar datos referenciados por coordenadas espaciales o geogr&aacute;ficas y sus correspondientes bases de datos no espaciales (Burrough, 1986; Valenzuela, 1991). Su principal objetivo consiste en apoyar y asistir en la toma de decisiones para el manejo y conservaci&oacute;n de recursos. En el caso de la hidrolog&iacute;a, un SIG asiste en el an&aacute;lisis de datos hidrometeorol&oacute;gicos e hidrogeol&oacute;gicos (cuantitativos) y tem&aacute;ticos (roca, relieve, suelo y cobertura; Meijerink <i>et al,</i> 1994).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La mayor parte de los esfuerzos de investigaci&oacute;n hacia la integraci&oacute;n de los SIG con el modelamiento hidrol&oacute;gico (MH) se realizaron hasta finales de los a&ntilde;os ochenta. La integraci&oacute;n de tecnolog&iacute;as comenz&oacute; lentamente cuando el SIG fue utilizado para ejecutar sobreposici&oacute;n y agregaci&oacute;n de informaci&oacute;n espacial, que permitieran reconocer las caracter&iacute;sticas de la cuenca para exportarlas a un programa en alg&uacute;n lenguaje de programaci&oacute;n o un paquete estad&iacute;stico, para su an&aacute;lisis. Estas ligas evolucionaron hacia esquemas m&aacute;s robustos y complejos (Kopp, 1996; McDonell, 1996; Sui y Maggio, 1999).</font></p>  	    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Sui y Maggio (1999), clasifican el grado de integraci&oacute;n entre los SIG y el MH en cuatro tipos: <i>a)</i> incorporaci&oacute;n de SIG en el modelamiento hidrol&oacute;gico; <i>b)</i> incorporaci&oacute;n del modelamiento hidrol&oacute;gico en los SIG; <i>c)</i> acoplamiento holgado <i>(loose coopling),</i> y <i>d)</i> acoplamiento estrecho <i>(tight coopling;</i> <a href="/img/revistas/igeo/n47/a4f1.jpg" target="_blank">Figura 1</a>).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los aportes del uso de un SIG tienen que ver con la integraci&oacute;n y modelamiento de datos espaciales. En el caso de integrar datos clim&aacute;ticos preexistentes de baja y muy baja resoluci&oacute;n, los trabajos se caracterizan por elaborarse a peque&ntilde;a escala, en el orden de los miles a millones de km<sup>2</sup>, principalmente. El modelamiento del BH se realiza en regiones amplias, generalmente semi&aacute;ridas poco aforadas (Maidment <i>et al,</i> 1995 y 1996; Maidment y Reed, 1997; Olivera <i>et al,</i> 1995; Olivera, 1995; Reed, <i>et</i> <i>al.,</i> 1997; Reed, 1996; Beek, 1996, Mendoza y Boceo, 2001); medianamente aforadas en el sur de Estados Unidos de Am&eacute;rica (Olivera, 1996), y templadas tropicales y &aacute;ridas que cuentan con grandes bases de datos hist&oacute;ricas provenientes de aforos (Arnell, 1999); con bases de datos resultado de experimentos (Seguin <i>et al.,</i> 1989). La resoluci&oacute;n espacial de estos trabajos var&iacute;a de las centenas de kil&oacute;metros hasta miles de kil&oacute;metros por lado.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Dentro de este grupo se puede incluir a los trabajos de caracterizaci&oacute;n morfom&eacute;trica de cuencas que utilizan como fuente de datos a los Modelos Digitales de Terreno (MDT) a varias resoluciones espaciales, de los cuales se derivan la delimitaci&oacute;n de cuencas, redes de drenaje y direcci&oacute;n de escurrimientos (Olivera y Maidment, 1996; Miller y Morrice, 1996; M&uuml;ller&#45;Wohlfeil, <i>et al,</i> 1996; Beek, 1996). Adem&aacute;s, las herramientas de modelamiento espacial en los SIG permiten estimar y generar la distribuci&oacute;n espacial de los par&aacute;metros hidrol&oacute;gicos a partir de la aplicaci&oacute;n de diferentes t&eacute;cnicas de interpolaci&oacute;n dentro del sistema <i>(kriging, trend surface analysis, moving average,</i> entre otros).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Como parte de este enfoque, Maidment (1993b) desarroll&oacute; un procedimiento de diez pasos para el MHED en SIG (<a href="/img/revistas/igeo/n47/a4t1.jpg" target="_blank">Tabla 1</a>). Los primeros cinco pasos se relacionan con la definici&oacute;n del modelo espacio&#45;temporal, adem&aacute;s de la descripci&oacute;n ambiental. La descripci&oacute;n incluye modelos espaciales de la distribuci&oacute;n del relieve, suelos, cobertura, hidrolog&iacute;a subterr&aacute;nea, as&iacute; como datos puntuales de precipitaci&oacute;n, escorrent&iacute;a y concentraci&oacute;n de elementos qu&iacute;micos. Los &uacute;ltimos cinco pasos se relacionan con la simulaci&oacute;n del BH de las unidades espaciales, el flujo del agua y transporte de elementos entre las unidades, el efecto de las estructuras de <i>utilizaci&oacute;n del agua,</i> tales como presas y sistemas de bombeo.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Aportes de la percepci&oacute;n remota a la hidrolog&iacute;a</b></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La PR proporciona observaciones de la superficie terrestre y marina en longitudes de onda visible (Vis), infrarrojo (In), t&eacute;rmico (Te) y de microondas (Mo). Los instrumentos se encuentran en plataformas satelitales y aeronaves. Entre los datos com&uacute;nmente extra&iacute;dos de estos documentos, se encuentran los de cobertura del suelo, relieve, suelos, rocas y biomasa, entre otros (Lillesand y Kiefer, 1987; Barret <i>et al.,</i> 1990; Sabins, 1997).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La descripci&oacute;n de las relaciones entre la precipitaci&oacute;n (P), temperatura (T), humedad en el suelo (HS), infiltraci&oacute;n (I), recarga de aguas subterr&aacute;neas (Ri, Ssw), escorrent&iacute;a (Q) y evapotranpiraci&oacute;n (ET) es posible realizarse con modelos de distribuci&oacute;n espacial, con los cuales se puede estimar un BH regional cualitativo, semi&#45;cualitativo y en algunas ocasiones cuantitativo. En la <a href="/img/revistas/igeo/n47/a4t2.jpg" target="_blank">Tabla 2</a> se presentan &iexcl;as caracter&iacute;sticas generales de los sensores remotos com&uacute;nmente utilizados en la generaci&oacute;n y estimaci&oacute;n de variables ligadas a &iexcl;os aspectos hidrol&oacute;gicos.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La mayor parte de los avances del uso de PR en hidrolog&iacute;a han surgido al intentar responder a preguntas en &aacute;reas donde los m&eacute;todos hidrol&oacute;gicos existentes fueron poco satisfactorios y donde los datos necesarios para el an&aacute;lisis fueron escasos o inexistentes (Engman, 1996). Actualmente la PR se encuentra en una fase de transici&oacute;n de ser una herramienta descriptiva para convertirse en una tecnolog&iacute;a cuantitativa que proporciona informaci&oacute;n espacial (Baumgartner y Apfl, 1996).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La integraci&oacute;n de la PR y la hidrolog&iacute;a permite estimar los componentes del BH, tales como P, T, ET y HS, a partir de la transformaci&oacute;n de datos digitales de las bandas Vis, In y Te (<a href="/img/revistas/igeo/n47/a4t3.jpg" target="_blank">Tabla 3</a>). Estos datos son obtenidos a partir de im&aacute;genes de sat&eacute;lite de muy baja resoluci&oacute;n (3 x 3 a 5 x 5 km por pixel, GOES y Meteosat); de im&aacute;genes de resoluci&oacute;n baja (1 km<sup>2</sup>, AVHRR); y de im&aacute;genes de alta resoluci&oacute;n (20 x 20 a 120 x 120 m, Spot y Landsat, respectivamente). En la presente revisi&oacute;n se enfatiza en los algoritmos de transformaci&oacute;n de datos de PR provenientes del rango espectral que corresponde a las bandas Vis, Te e In.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Salomonson (1983), dividi&oacute; el uso de la PR en el MH en tres categor&iacute;as. La m&aacute;s simple corresponde al uso de im&aacute;genes satelitales para identificar objetos de inter&eacute;s como son plumas de sedimentos en cuerpos de agua. Ei segundo nivel se relaciona con la obtenci&oacute;n de datos de cobertura vegetal, rasgos geol&oacute;gicos, o geomorfol&oacute;gicos a trav&eacute;s de interpretaci&oacute;n y clasificaci&oacute;n de datos de percepci&oacute;n remota. El tercer nivel involucra el uso de datos digitales para estimar par&aacute;metros hidrol&oacute;gicos directamente. Este &uacute;ltimo se logra a trav&eacute;s de la correlaci&oacute;n de datos de PR con datos hidrol&oacute;gicos conocidos en campo. El grado de error de las estimaciones depende de la densidad, calidad y escala de los datos disponibles. Todos los niveles han sido exitosamente utilizados, particularmente cuando el segundo nivel delimita datos apropiados para la ejecuci&oacute;n de modelos hidrol&oacute;gicos (Kite y Prietoniro, 1996).</font></p>  	    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Entre las principales ventajas del uso de la PR se encuentra la habilidad de proporcionar datos espacialmente distribuidos en lugar de datos puntuales; tiene, adem&aacute;s, el potencial para proporcionar estimaciones de variables hidrol&oacute;gicas no medidas a trav&eacute;s de t&eacute;cnicas tradicionales tales como HS; y tiene la habilidad de proporcionar datos de largo plazo en reglones generalmente Inaccesibles (Engman, 1996). La precipitaci&oacute;n es la principal variable de entrada del MH. La estimaci&oacute;n correcta de la distribuci&oacute;n espacial de la precipitaci&oacute;n, es la base para el c&aacute;lculo del BH. Desde la d&eacute;cada de 1970 se han desarrollado varios m&eacute;todos para el c&aacute;lculo de la P, los cuales consideran las caracter&iacute;sticas f&iacute;sicas de las nubes en una imagen satelital.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Las t&eacute;cnicas digitales se basan en el an&aacute;lisis del espectro electromagn&eacute;tico, especialmente en las regiones de Mo, Vis y en la regl&oacute;n del infrarrojo t&eacute;rmico (Ter). Sin embargo, ninguna de estas t&eacute;cnicas proporciona una medici&oacute;n directa de la cantidad de precipitaci&oacute;n, pero pueden proporcionar indicaciones de la precipitaci&oacute;n probable en condiciones particulares (Bonif&aacute;cio, 1991; Petty y Krajewski, 1996; Kite y Prietoniro, 1996). Dos de la t&eacute;cnicas se conocen como: <i>a)</i> T&eacute;cnica Manual de Monitoreo de Lluvia por Sat&eacute;lite o M&eacute;todo Bristol (Barret, 1970; Barret <i>et al.,</i> 1990) y <i>b)</i> BIAS (Bristol/NOAA <i>Inter Active Scheme).</i></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Petty (1995), y Petty y Krajewski (1996) analizan a profundidad las t&eacute;cnicas actuales de estimaci&oacute;n de la precipitaci&oacute;n basadas en datos satelitales; mientras que Foufoula&#45;Georgio y Krajewski (1995) revisan los avances en el modelamiento de la precipitaci&oacute;n. Ellos se enfocan en aquellos algoritmos y productos relevantes para la hidrolog&iacute;a superficial. Concluyen que las estimaciones de precipitaci&oacute;n basadas en Vis/ln, en general, sobreestiman la precipitaci&oacute;n real por &aacute;rea y son &uacute;tiles a escalas regionales, donde se calculan promedios semanales y mensuales de precipitaci&oacute;n (de tipo convectivo).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los algoritmos utilizados en la estimaci&oacute;n de la temperatura han sido elaborados a partir de la aparici&oacute;n de sensores remotos de muy baja resoluci&oacute;n <i>(National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration,</i> NOAA y <i>Aeronautic and Space Administration,</i> NASA) (Czajkowski <i>et al,</i> 1998). La estimaci&oacute;n precisa de la temperatura superficial es un requisito importante del monitoreo global o regional del BH, de energ&iacute;a y de radiaci&oacute;n. La estimaci&oacute;n de la temperatura superficial involucra la correcci&oacute;n de los efectos atmosf&eacute;ricos y de emisividad superficial (Andersen, 1997 y Pozo&#45;V&aacute;zquez <i>et al,</i> 1997); adem&aacute;s de considerar las discrepancias en las estimaciones realizadas en zonas con escasa cobertura vegetal (Chehbouni, 1997).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Por otro lado, existe la necesidad de determinar la incertidumbre ocasionada por la agregaci&oacute;n de variables, producto de la PR &#91;temperatura superficial (Ts) y reflactancia (p)&#93; y flujos de energ&iacute;a superficial &#91;flujos de calor sensible (H) y latente <i>(</i>&#955;<i>E)</i>&#93; sobre grandes &aacute;reas. Esta incertidumbre est&aacute; directamente relacionada con dos factores: <i>a)</i> la no linearidad de la relaci&oacute;n entre la se&ntilde;al del sensor y Ts, p, H o &#955;E, y <i>b)</i> la heterogeneidad del sitio. Los resultados enfatizan la necesidad de ser cuidadosos en la agregaci&oacute;n de los componentes del balance de energ&iacute;a en paisajes heterog&eacute;neos, con presencia de vegetaci&oacute;n escasa o mixta (Moran <i>et al,</i> 1997).</font></p>      <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La estimaci&oacute;n de la temperatura superficial, en general, se lleva a cabo a trav&eacute;s del an&aacute;lisis digital de <i>las</i> bandas t&eacute;rmicas de im&aacute;genes AVHRR o Landsat. Aunque las im&aacute;genes AVHRR tienen ventajas en el modelamiento ambiental (Belward, 1992), especialmente a niveles regionales, su principal limitaci&oacute;n est&aacute; en la resoluci&oacute;n espacial. La limitaci&oacute;n de las im&aacute;genes Landsat se encuentra en su resoluci&oacute;n temporal (16 d&iacute;as; Cuadro 2).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Se han desarrollado otros algoritmos con intenci&oacute;n de estimar la temperatura superficial, por ejemplo a partir de la transformaci&oacute;n de los valores del &iacute;ndice del Vegetaci&oacute;n Normalizado (NDVI; Kerr <i>et al.,</i> 1992; Hope y Mcdowell, 1992). El NDVI tiene la ventaja de poder ser calculado en im&aacute;genes de baja resoluci&oacute;n (NOAA&#45;AVHRR) y mediana resoluci&oacute;n (Landsat TM y SPOT). Las im&aacute;genes SPOT y Landsat sirven para realizar estimaciones locales de temperatura superficial. Su principal desventaja est&aacute; en la resoluci&oacute;n temporal. Otra ventaja del m&eacute;todo radica en la sustituci&oacute;n de la emisividad, la cual debe ser estimada a partir de datos de terreno con radiosondas o radi&oacute;metros, por un &iacute;ndice basado en el NDVI (Pozo <i>et al,</i> 1997).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Richard y Poccard (1998) encontraron &iacute;ndices de correlaci&oacute;n superiores a 0.80 entre la temperatura superficial y el NDVI derivado de im&aacute;genes AVHRR del sur de &Aacute;frica. La distribuci&oacute;n espacial del NDVI medio mensual concuerda con la distribuci&oacute;n de la precipitaci&oacute;n media mensual sobre la mayor parte del &aacute;rea; excepto para las &aacute;reas des&eacute;rticas y semides&eacute;rticas con precipitaciones menores a 300 mm al a&ntilde;o. Este enfoque puede tener la desventaja de que los resultados obtenidos en zonas con coberturas severamente perturbadas pueden ser poco confiables. El NDVI est&aacute; en funci&oacute;n de la turgencia de la vegetaci&oacute;n, en caso de encontrarse vegetaci&oacute;n perturbada por cambio de cobertura (por ejemplo, bosque por matorral), los valores de NVDI reflejar&aacute;n las caracter&iacute;sticas de la cobertura, pero su transformaci&oacute;n a temperaturas superficiales, puede ser incorrecta.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Pozo <i>et al.</i> (1997) reconocen que la topograf&iacute;a perturba pr&aacute;cticamente cada uno de los procesos y las variables en las interacciones tierra&#45;atm&oacute;sfera, incluyendo radiaci&oacute;n, temperatura del aire, d&eacute;ficit de saturaci&oacute;n, viento, turbulencia, nubosidad, precipitaci&oacute;n, propiedades del suelo y de la vegetaci&oacute;n. En consecuencia, los valores de NDVI deben ser corregidos por efectos topogr&aacute;ficos para utilizarse en la estimaci&oacute;n de par&aacute;metros superficiales. Sin embargo, en topograf&iacute;as ligeramente suaves, el balance regional de energ&iacute;a superficial (promedios espaciales sobre varias colinas) es insensible a la presencia de la topograf&iacute;a (Raupach y Finnigan, 1997). Por otro lado, Burgess <i>et al.</i> (1995) se&ntilde;alan que los errores topogr&aacute;ficos son mayores a un 13 % cuando la resoluci&oacute;n es m&aacute;s alta (20 m<sup>2</sup>), mientras que se reduce a aproximadamente 10% cuando se trabaja con im&aacute;genes de baja resoluci&oacute;n (1 km<sup>2</sup>).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Para comprender las interacciones atm&oacute;sfera&#45;superficie en una variedad de escalas espaciales, es necesario estimar la radiaci&oacute;n neta a partir de datos espaciales (Goodin, 1995). En este sentido, se han desarrollado algoritmos, los cuales preferentemente se utilizan en im&aacute;genes Landsat TM, aunque pueden ser modificados para utilizarse con NOAA&#45;AVHRR.</font></p>  	    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">A partir de la PR la evaporaci&oacute;n en cuerpos de agua tambi&eacute;n puede ser estimada. En primera instancia debe medirse el &aacute;rea del cuerpo de agua. La estimaci&oacute;n se basa en que la radiaci&oacute;n en 0.85 &micro;m es m&aacute;s fuertemente atenuada en el agua que en 0.68 &micro;m. Contrariamente sobre la tierra, la absorci&oacute;n debida a la vegetaci&oacute;n conduce a mayor absorci&oacute;n en 0.68 &micro;m que en 0.85 &micro;m. Este procedimiento ha sido ampliamente utilizado para delimitar cuerpos de agua con datos de AVHRR (Schneider <i>et al.,</i> 1985), Posteriormente se estima la temperatura superficial y con apoyo de la batimetr&iacute;a existente o estimada por t&eacute;cnicas de PR puede conocerse la evaporaci&oacute;n del cuerpo de agua.</font></p>      <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El monitoreo de la evapotranspiraci&oacute;n tiene importantes implicaciones en el modelamiento regional y global del clima, del ciclo hidrol&oacute;gico, as&iacute; como la evaluaci&oacute;n del estr&eacute;s de los ecosistemas naturales y agr&iacute;colas (Kustas y Norman, 1995). En consecuencia, la evapotranspiraci&oacute;n es un par&aacute;metro muy importante en los modelos de producci&oacute;n agr&iacute;cola, determinaci&oacute;n de la humedad del suelo y detecci&oacute;n del estr&eacute;s en cultivos (Casetles <i>et al,</i> 1992; Seguin <i>et al.,</i> 1989). La evapotranspiraci&oacute;n puede ser estimada a partir de las bandas t&eacute;rmicas tanto de NOAA&#45;AVHRR, como de Landsat TM. La ejecuci&oacute;n de los algoritmos implica la obtenci&oacute;n de datos de radiaci&oacute;n en campo.</font></p>      <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los m&eacute;todos utilizados en la estimaci&oacute;n de la evapotranspiraci&oacute;n var&iacute;an desde acercamientos estad&iacute;sticos/semi&#45;emp&iacute;ricos. aproximaciones basadas en an&aacute;lisis de procesos f&iacute;sicos y, recientemente, se incluye el modelamiento num&eacute;rico para simular el flujo de calor y agua a trav&eacute;s del suelo, vegetaci&oacute;n y atm&oacute;sfera (Kustas y Norman, 1995: Bastiaanssen <i>et al,</i> 1998; Bastiaanssen, 2000b).</font></p>      <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Entre los acercamientos estad&iacute;sticos para estimar la evapotranspiraci&oacute;n y realizar su monitoreo puede aplicarse uno que implique un an&aacute;lisis de regresi&oacute;n entre la evapotranspiraci&oacute;n calculada para las estaciones meteorol&oacute;gicas y la distribuci&oacute;n espacial del NDVI obtenido a partir de im&aacute;genes satelitales (por ejemplo, NOAA&#45;AVHRR). Esta aproximaci&oacute;n ha sido utilizada con &eacute;xito para estimarla evapotranspiraci&oacute;n en la regi&oacute;n de la pampa de Argentina (Di Bella <i>et al.,</i> 2000).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La HS, altamente variable en espacio y tiempo; puede ser estimada a partir de PR; sin embargo, es m&aacute;s dif&iacute;cil de estimar con datos provenientes de sat&eacute;lites meteorol&oacute;gicos (GOES, NOAA&#45;AVHRR) o tem&aacute;ticos (Landsat MSS o TM y SPOT). Las mejores estimaciones se realizan con datos provenientes de la secci&oacute;n del espectro que corresponde a las Mo (Houser <i>et al,</i> 1998; Jackson <i>et al.,</i> 1996). Se asume que muchos procesos hidrol&oacute;gicos despliegan una firma &uacute;nica que es detectable con sensores remotos de microondas. Estas firmas est&aacute;n en forma de distribuciones espaciales y temporales de la HS superficial (Engman, 1997). Sin embargo, se han elaborado experimentos en peque&ntilde;as cuencas, que condujeron a estimaciones satisfactorias de la HS en India, con datos de AVHRR (Narasimha <i>et al,</i> 1993) en sus bandas Ter e In (Capehart y Carlson, 1997).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La recarga del agua subterr&aacute;nea es esencialmente un fen&oacute;meno que se presenta por debajo de la superficie terrestre; mientras que los sensores remotos actuales com&uacute;nmente registran rasgos de la superficie, raz&oacute;n por la cual la mayor parte de la informaci&oacute;n requerida para aguas subterr&aacute;neas, hasta ahora, tiene que ser obtenida por razonamientos cualitativos y enfoques semi&#45;cuantitativos que incorporan datos de relieve, suelos y cobertura vegetal. La informaci&oacute;n generada por percepci&oacute;n remota frecuentemente suple datos, pero tiene que ser ligada con datos geohidrol&oacute;gicos para convertirse en significativa (Engman y Gurner, 1991; Meijerink, 2000).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Actualmente, la aplicaci&oacute;n pr&aacute;ctica de la PR en estudios de aguas subterr&aacute;neas conf&iacute;a en los enfoques cualitativos, por lo cual la experiencia hidrogeol&oacute;gica es requerida. La interpretaci&oacute;n de im&aacute;genes en fotograf&iacute;as a&eacute;reas estereosc&oacute;picas, im&aacute;genes multiespectrales e im&aacute;genes de Mo activa han probado su m&eacute;rito para la compilaci&oacute;n y actualizaci&oacute;n de mapas hidrogeol&oacute;gicos y mapeo de la recarga relativa. Con el progreso de la computaci&oacute;n ligada a datos geof&iacute;sicos de terreno y aeroespaciales, para tener Informaci&oacute;n subterr&aacute;nea, el modelamiento hidrogeol&oacute;gico ha podido realizarse eficazmente (Vekerdy, 1996; Meijerink <i>et al,</i> 1994; Meijerink, 2000; Meijerink y Mannaerts, 2000).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Aportes de la Geomorfolog&iacute;a a la hidrolog&iacute;a</b></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La clasificaci&oacute;n del terreno permite caracterizar las condiciones hidrol&oacute;gicas de una regi&oacute;n dada (Schaumm, 1964; Verstappen, 1983; Schumann <i>et al,</i> 2000). El prop&oacute;sito de hacer mapas de tipo geomorfol&oacute;gico, edafol&oacute;gico y de cobertura vegetal consiste en generar informaci&oacute;n concisa y sistem&aacute;tica sobre las formas del terreno, los procesos geomorfol&oacute;gicos, la estructura, composici&oacute;n, din&aacute;mica de los suelos y de la vegetaci&oacute;n, as&iacute; como de los fen&oacute;menos naturales relacionados (Zonneveld, 1979; Meijerink, 1988; Zinck, 1988). De esta manera, los mapas elaborados no son &uacute;nicamente documentos cient&iacute;ficos en s&iacute; mismos, sino tambi&eacute;n herramientas valiosas en la evaluaci&oacute;n y manejo de recursos naturales (Boceo <i>et al,</i> 2001)<b>.</b> El m&eacute;todo reconoce una concepci&oacute;n sist&eacute;mica de las unidades de relieve; por lo tanto, cada unidad tiene una funci&oacute;n ecol&oacute;gica distribuida en el espacio.</font></p>  	    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El MHED puede enriquecerse con el apoyo de la informaci&oacute;n geomorfol&oacute;gica, al incorporar un modelo espacial que permite diferenciaral territorio en unidades relativamente homog&eacute;neas. Las unidades tienen potencialmente respuestas hidrol&oacute;gicas similares, consecuentemente puede construirse un modelo robusto de la distribuci&oacute;n de los par&aacute;metros hidrol&oacute;gicos, basado tanto en un n&uacute;mero limitado de mediciones, y de un n&uacute;mero limitado de estaciones hidrometeorol&oacute;glcas, La integraci&oacute;n de la delimitaci&oacute;n de unidades relativamente homog&eacute;neas y el MH constituyen un enfoque frecuentemente utilizado en pa&iacute;ses subdesarrollados, con objeto de estimar el BH. La estimaci&oacute;n del BH o de alguno de sus componentes var&iacute;a en funci&oacute;n de la existencia de datos puntuales (P, T, Q, HS, etc.). Entre las estimaciones de car&aacute;cter cualitativo a semi&#45;cualitativo se encuentran las realizadas en Kenia (Boceo <i>et al.,</i> 1991); en Sud&aacute;n (Osman, 1996); en Tailandia (Zuvir&iacute;a, 1992); en Indonesia (Meijerink <i>et al.,</i> 1994); en Bolivia (Beek, 1996) y en Puerto Rico (Cruise y Miller, 1994), entre otros.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>La integraci&oacute;n de t&eacute;cnicas en investigaci&oacute;n en cuencas no instrumentadas</b></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La relevancia de la Integraci&oacute;n de los SIG y la PR ha sido analizada como herramientas de captura y modelamiento espacial de datos geogr&aacute;ficos y de atributos en pa&iacute;ses subdesarrollados (Perera y Tateishi, 1995). La integraci&oacute;n de estas herramientas auxilia en la planeaci&oacute;n a nivel regional. El an&aacute;lisis digital y los procedimientos dentro del SIG facilitaron la Integraci&oacute;n de datos y la producci&oacute;n de mapas para la evaluaci&oacute;n del recurso h&iacute;drico superficial y subterr&aacute;neo (Sharma y Anjaneyulu, 1993; Thunnissen <i>et al.,</i> 1992; Allewijn, 1988). Tambi&eacute;n ha sido utilizado en la predicci&oacute;n de la erosi&oacute;n y p&eacute;rdida de suelos en cuencas agr&iacute;colas de una zona &aacute;rida en India (Sharma y S&iacute;ngh, 1995). Es decir, la PR, efectivamente integrada dentro de un SIG, puede ser utilizada para facilitar las actividades de medici&oacute;n, cartograf&iacute;a, monitoreo y MHED, especialmente en grandes regiones (Baumgartner y Apfl, 1996).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La integraci&oacute;n de bases de datos espaciales, junto con el modelamiento espacial y el an&aacute;lisis estad&iacute;stico, ha probado su eficiencia en la construcci&oacute;n de modelos descriptivos y explicativos del desarrollo de c&aacute;rcavas, (Boceo, 1990; Palacio, 1989; V&aacute;zquez, 1992), del crecimiento urbano (L&oacute;pez <i>et al.,</i> 2001), de la recarga de aguas subterr&aacute;neas (Meijerink, 1996; Narayana <i>et al.,</i> 1996; Vekerdy, 1996), contaminaci&oacute;n por fuentes no puntuales (Olivera, 1996; Lobo, 1996), de la distribuci&oacute;n espacial del BH (Boceo <i>et al,</i> 1991; Meijerink, 1974; Osman, 1996; entre otros) y mejoramiento de t&eacute;cnicas de evaluaci&oacute;n de tierras con fines agr&iacute;colas (Zuvir&iacute;a, 1992). Este enfoque, adem&aacute;s, permite evaluar en forma r&aacute;pida implicaciones espaciales del CCVUS en el modelamiento de la escorrent&iacute;a (Bhaduri <i>et al,</i> 1997; Grove y Harbor, 1997; Sado e Islam, 1996; Mendoza y Boceo, 2001).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La revisi&oacute;n y discusi&oacute;n efectuada permiti&oacute; reconocer cuatro grupos en los que se utiliza la integraci&oacute;n de modelos y herramientas en estudios hidrol&oacute;gicos espacialmente distribuidos: <i>a)</i> los que integran el modelamiento hidrol&oacute;gico y los sistemas de informaci&oacute;n geogr&aacute;fica (SIG); <i>b)</i> los que integran el modelamiento hidrol&oacute;gico y percepci&oacute;n remota; <i>c)</i> los que integran el modelamiento hidrol&oacute;gico, la PR y los SIG, y <i>d)</i> los que Integran el conocimiento geomorfol&oacute;gico, la PR, los SIG's al modelamiento hidrol&oacute;gico.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El primero de ellos se limita a especializar e integrar datos meteorol&oacute;gicos de baja resoluci&oacute;n a modelos hidrol&oacute;gicos en un ambiente de SIG. El segundo incluye trabajos en los cuales se estiman par&aacute;metros b&aacute;sicos de entrada de datos para el c&aacute;lculo de precipitaci&oacute;n, evapotranspiraci&oacute;n, radiaci&oacute;n, etc., a partir del an&aacute;lisis digital de datos de percepci&oacute;n remota, con los cuales se alimentan los modelos hidrol&oacute;gicos, ya sean agregados o espacialmente distribuidos. El tercero liga las herramientas de SIG y PR con el MH; en general, hace un uso Intensivo de las herramientas de SIG para el modelamiento espacial a varias escalas. El &uacute;ltimo grupo incluye la integraci&oacute;n de SIG, PR y MH apoyado en gran medida por la delimitaci&oacute;n de unidades ambientales y la caracterizaci&oacute;n de las mismas, generalmente a escalas detalladas y semidetalladas.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>LIMITACIONES EN LA ESTIMACI&Oacute;N DEL BALANCE H&Iacute;DRICO</b></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Shade (1996), se&ntilde;ala que la estimaci&oacute;n de los componentes del BH a partir de informaci&oacute;n hidrometeorol&oacute;gica, del conocimiento de relaciones geomorfol&oacute;gicas y con el apoyo de datos productos de PR presenta limitaciones. Las limitaciones tienen relaci&oacute;n con la naturaleza emp&iacute;rica del modelo, el uso de valores promedio tanto de las caracter&iacute;sticas de la cuenca, como debido a la resoluci&oacute;n mensual de los datos meterol&oacute;gicos. Al utilizar promedios de los atributos f&iacute;sicos de la cuenca, as&iacute; como de los datos de clima, se elimina a los valores extremos que ocurren en la naturaleza. Adem&aacute;s, los valores promedio eliminan la oportunidad de simular el drenaje en suelos no saturados, tambi&eacute;n las p&eacute;rdidas por evapotransporacion a trav&eacute;s del ascenso capilar en la interfase ra&iacute;z&#45;matriz del suelo, Por lo tanto, al usar datos mensuales de la recarga del agua subterr&aacute;nea, probablemente se subestimen especialmente al comparar estos resultados con aquellos modelados a partir de datos diarios o, m&aacute;s a&uacute;n, datos horarios. Desafortunadamente, los registros meteorol&oacute;gicos existentes en pa&iacute;ses subdesarrollados s&oacute;lo permiten el c&aacute;lculo mensual.</font></p>  	    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Con relaci&oacute;n al error debido a la variabilidad espacial, algunos estudios Indican que, para reducir el error en la estimaci&oacute;n de Q, y por diferencia en ET, es vital mejorar el conocimiento de la variabilidad espacial de la lluvia.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Lopes (1996) examin&oacute; el efecto, medido en t&eacute;rminos del error relativo, sobre la predicci&oacute;n del escurrimiento a partir de la estimaci&oacute;n especial o regional de la precipitaci&oacute;n en una cuenca de 6.7 km<sup>2</sup> dominada por eventos de tipo convectivo y escurrimiento hortoniano. En su estudio concluy&oacute; que la densidad de pluvi&oacute;grafos tuvo un efecto significativo sobre la predicci&oacute;n del escurrimiento; cuando se redujo de diez a seis pluvi&oacute;grafos el error en la predicci&oacute;n fue de un 30%, sin embargo, cuando se redujo de diez a uno, el error se increment&oacute; en un 130%.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En estudios realizados en cuencas forestales peque&ntilde;as se ha determinado que la ET puede ser estimada con &plusmn;15 % de Incertidumbre, aun cuando los componentes P y Q sean estimados con gran precisi&oacute;n. Las discrepancias se han atribuido a cambios en el contenido de humedad y al movimiento de agua en la matriz del suelo (precolaci&oacute;n). En el enfoque del BH la incertidumbre o error de estimaci&oacute;n asociado a los t&eacute;rminos conocidos se esconde en los componentes del balance determinados por sustracci&oacute;n.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>DISCUSI&Oacute;N Y CONCLUSIONES</b></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">A pesar de las limitaciones mencionadas, el modelamiento integral representa una opci&oacute;n viable, que permite entender el comportamiento hidrol&oacute;gico y realizar su modelamiento espacio&#45;temporal. Los modelos de investigaci&oacute;n deben tener la capacidad de funcionar razonablemente bien en distintas regiones y con diferentes caracter&iacute;sticas hidrol&oacute;gicas y ambientales (Venneker y Schellekens, 1997). El estudio integrado de cuencas enfocado a la planeaci&oacute;n, ingenier&iacute;a, manejo ambiental y de recursos h&iacute;dricos tiene su base en el entendimiento de los procesos hidrol&oacute;gicos y sus interacciones. Estos procesos generalmente exhiben variabilidad temporal y espacial (Venneker y Bruijinzeel, 1997).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La naturaleza distribuida de un sistema de modelamiento permite reconocer la variaci&oacute;n espacial, las caracter&iacute;sticas y los cambios dentro de una cuenca; adem&aacute;s, &eacute;stos pueden utilizarse para crear nuevos escenarios. Los MHED tienen ventajas particulares en estudios sobre los efectos del CCVUS. El modelo no &uacute;nicamente proporciona una descarga de salida, sino salidas m&uacute;ltiples sobre una base temporal y espacialmente distribuida. Las desventajas con estas formas de modelamiento son la gran cantidad de datos de alta resoluci&oacute;n y los elevados requerimientos computacionales (Olsson y Pilesjo, 1999).</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El MHED es resultado de la integraci&oacute;n de modelos hidrol&oacute;gicos convencionales, el an&aacute;lisis de documentos aeroespaciales y de tecnolog&iacute;as de PR y SIG. Los MHED permiten el modelamiento de los datos bajo un marco espacial que facilita el entendimiento de las condiciones hidrol&oacute;gicas de las cuencas en estudio. Sin embargo, esta l&iacute;nea de investigaci&oacute;n se encuentra poco desarrollada en la bibliograf&iacute;a, la cual es abundante en la aplicaci&oacute;n de modelos en cuencas aforadas.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Este enfoque representa una alternativa para entender el comportamiento hidrol&oacute;gico a escala regional en cuencas poco aforadas y con necesidad de evaluar la disponibilidad y distribuci&oacute;n del agua. Estos requerimientos de informaci&oacute;n son comunes en los pa&iacute;ses subdesarrollados. Adem&aacute;s, este enfoque facilita el entendimiento de los efectos del deterioro y CCVUS sobre los componentes del BH en cuencas no experimentales. Este tipo de conocimiento que es la base para la formaci&oacute;n de planes de manejo y conservaci&oacute;n de cuencas, as&iacute; como para la identificaci&oacute;n de &aacute;reas prioritarias que requieren rehabilitaci&oacute;n.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>AGRADECIMIENTOS</b></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La investigaci&oacute;n de la cual se desprende este trabajo, fue financiada por las becas de posgrado del CONACyT y DGEP&#45;UNAM, recibidas durante el Doctorado realizado por el primer autor en la UNAM. Se agradece la cuidadosa revisi&oacute;n del primer manuscrito realizada por Erna L&oacute;pez y los valiosos comentarlos de dos &aacute;rbitros an&oacute;nimos.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>REFERENCIAS</b></font></p>  	    <!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Allewijn, R. (1988), "Regional hydrological system analysis using remote sensing data and geographical Information system. Application to groundwater modelling of the Roermod area, The Netherlands", <i>International Journal of Remote Sensing,</i> 9(10), pp. 1775&#45;1785.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=4645523&pid=S0188-4611200200010000400001&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>  	    <!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Andersen, H. S. (1997), "Land surface temperature estimation based on NOAA&#45;AVHRR data during the HAPEX&#45;Sahel experiment", <i>Journal of Hydrology,</i> 188&#45;189 (1&#45;4), pp. 788&#45;814.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=4645525&pid=S0188-4611200200010000400002&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>  	    <!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Arnell, N.W. (1999), "A simple water balance model for the simulation of streamflow over a large geographic domain", <i>Journal of Hydrology,</i> 217, pp. 314&#45;335.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=4645527&pid=S0188-4611200200010000400003&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>  	    ]]></body>
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