<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0185-3325</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Salud mental]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Salud Ment]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0185-3325</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0185-33252012000400004</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[La competencia emocional como recurso inhibidor para la perpetración del maltrato psicológico en la pareja]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Emotional competence as a resource to inhibit psychological abuse in couples]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Blázquez-Alonso]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Macarena]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Moreno-Manso]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Juan Manuel]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[García-Baamonde Sánchez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Ma. Elena]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Guerrero-Barona]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Eloísa]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad de Extremadura Facultad de Educación Departamento de Psicología]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
<country>España</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2012</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2012</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>35</volume>
<numero>4</numero>
<fpage>287</fpage>
<lpage>296</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0185-33252012000400004&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0185-33252012000400004&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0185-33252012000400004&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[Nowadays, violence within couples is the most alarming form of interpersonal violence. It could even be considered a public health problem. Nevertheless, although the magnitude is as serious as the repercussions of the aggression suffered by the victims, there is a general tendency to restrict the focus of attention to the physical aspect of the problem. Thus, the study of psychological abuse is relegated to a secondary plane, ignoring those works that demonstrate the presence of psychological aggression with serious consequences, comparable to or even greater than those of a physical nature, even though the former are more difficult to predict. For this reason, there is little consensus concerning the specific behaviour patterns that make up psychological abuse. Nevertheless, among its most evident characteristics, we can point to such manifestations as insults, criticism, humiliations, disparagement or ridicule, both in public and in private, social and economic isolation, repeated threats to either abandon the relationship or to seek a divorce, threats of abuse towards the victims or their loved ones and those related with harming or destroying the victim's cherished belongings, whether they be objects or animals, which may be psychologically traumatic for the victim. On the other hand, such conduct as manipulating information, affective neglect, denial of violence and putting the blame entirely on the victim can be listed as hidden expressions of psychological abuse in couples. Similarly, several works have established a link between a wide range of psychological and behavioural symptoms connected to psychological violence in couples with numerous aspects of emotional intelligence. On an interpersonal level, conflictive couples seem to respond to communicative registers far removed from emotional intelligence or such partner skills as empathy, self-control and co-operation, thus leading to violent relational dynamics. The current research analyses psychological abuse in couples (disparagement, hostility, indifference, intimidation, imposition of behaviour patterns, blaming and apparent kindness) and its connection with the level of emotional competence (emotiveness, efficacy, rigidity and illusion) shown by the individuals that make up the couple. The research was carried out in the context of the University of Extremadura (Spain). The sample was selected randomly and was made up of 1 080 university students, of whom 332 were male and 748 female, aged in four categories covering the range from 17 to 23 years or more. Following the sample selection, the deans and department directors were informed of the aims of the research, their approval was sought to implement the research instruments and to guarantee the collaboration of the lecturers in the various degree subjects chosen. Then, a joint calendar was established to apply the tests. The surveys were carried out during the academic years 2007/2008 and 2008/2009. The tests were collectively administered in single sessions. Copies of the survey were handed out along with instructions. Volunteers were then told to fill in personal data and the instructions were read out aloud, stressing the importance of answering all the questions without exception. Finally, doubts were answered, taking care not to influence the subjects' replies. The confidentiality of the students' answers was guaranteed by coding each questionnaire with a numerical identification. After the questionnaires were handed in, the students' replies were checked for compliance with the protocols, and on the basis of atypical replies and questions left unanswered. Only two questionnaires were eliminated due to protocol and no atypical answers or unanswered questions were found. The order was exactly the same for all the applications: First of all the Inventory of Constructive Thought (15 to 30 minutes), and secondly the Questionnaire on Psychological Abuse (15 to 20 minutes). The main results of the study, with respect to the indicators of psychological abuse in couples, are as follows: the existence of patterns of psychological violence in the relationships of couples of university students is confirmed. Of the most significant sub-factors of psychological abuse, the most frequently used by these young people were those included in (3) Indifference, while the least commonly used were those included in (7) Apparent Kindness. As for the relationship between psychologically abusive behaviour patterns and emotional competence during pre-marital relationships, there are significant differences. Finally, the presence of significant correlations between most factors and sub-factors of psychological abuse in couples and the different emotional skills is confirmed. To conclude, it can be said that the research provides evidence that the indicators of psychological abuse in couples start to appear during pre-marital relationships. An analysis of the results demonstrates that these subjects put into practice such indicators and/or manifestations as: trivializations, reproaches, lack of empathy or support, judging, criticising, correcting, abusive insistence and accusations. The students from the sample show no marked tendency towards the exercise of any form of psychological violence in particular. Rather, they exhibit a heterogeneous behavioural repertory made up of disparagement, confrontation, lack of interest or affection, coercion, attempts to restrict the victim psychologically or socially, and blaming the victim for the aggressor's own violent response. Also worthy of note are such specific manifestations as: the aggressor's interest in disparaging any behaviour or attitude adopted by the partner, showing serious resistance to listening and sharing the partner's reality, unless to chide them. Similarly, the existence of behaviour patterns can be appreciated through which aggressors implacably and strictly censure their partner for not living up to their own expectations, forcing the situation until they can release their anger and personal tension and thus get their way with the victim. In addition, the presence of indifference can also be appreciated as the commonest expression of psychological violence among young people aged between 17 and 23. This demonstrates a lack of affective involvement that makes empathy, support and respect towards the individuality of the victim impossible. In turn, it promotes behaviour patterns of monopolising by the aggressor, at the same time as it generates problems for establishing effective communicative links within the couple and destroys the principles of mutuality and equality that are at the heart of any relationship. On the other hand, in this pre-marital interaction, there are significant differences and relationships between the considered manifestations of psychological violence. There are certainly such behaviour patterns as disparagement, hostility, lack of affection, coercion, unreasonable demands, blaming and manipulative attitudes present in the relationships of the students studied. There is also the development of such skills as the subject's capacity to face potentially stressful situations ("emotiveness"), to adopt objective, optimistic and functional thought patterns ("efficacy"), to show tolerance when faced with frustration ("rigidity") and to avoid making judgements about reality based on optimism without objective reasons ("illusion"). However, such data are indicative of such revealing results as the existence of a greater tendency towards psychological violence in its different manifestations by those students with more precarious emotional resources, become even more consistent when the many related studies that act as empirical support are reviewed. With this work, we aim to contribute to the scientific analysis of psychological violence in the relationships of couples, as well as in the design of primary prevention programmes focused on the development of emotional education as a key tool for establishing full and healthy relationships between couples.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[La violencia contra la pareja constituye, actualmente, la forma más alarmante de violencia interpersonal. Sin embargo, a pesar de la magnitud del fenómeno, existe una tendencia general a restringir el foco de interés a la dimensión física del mismo. De esta forma el estudio del maltrato psicológico es relegado a un segundo plano, ignorando aquellos trabajos que evidencian la presencia de agresiones psicológicas con secuelas de gravedad equiparada o superior a las de naturaleza física, aunque las primeras presenten una mayor dificultad en su detección. Diferentes investigaciones establecen una vinculación entre una amplia gama de síntomas psicológicos y comportamentales consecuentes a la violencia psicológica en la pareja, con varias de las dimensiones de la inteligencia emocional. De esta forma, las parejas con elevadas tasas de conflictividad responsables de la instauración de la dinámica relacional violenta, parecen responder en el plano interpersonal con registros comunicativos alejados de la inteligencia emocional o de competencias como la empatía, el autocontrol y la cooperación hacia sus parejas. En la presente investigación se analiza el maltrato psicológico en las relaciones de pareja (desvalorización, hostilidad, indiferencia, intimidación, imposición de conductas, culpabilización y bondad aparente) y su relación con el nivel de competencias emocionales (emotividad, eficacia, rigidez e ilusión) que presentan los miembros que conforman la misma. Se desarrolló en el contexto de la Universidad de Extremadura (España). La selección de la muestra fue aleatoria y se compuso de 1 080 estudiantes universitarios/as. De ellos, 332 varones y 748 mujeres de edades comprendidas en cuatro categorías que abarcan el intervalo de 17 a 23 años o más. Una vez seleccionada la muestra establecimos un calendario para la aplicación de los instrumentos, conjuntamente con los decanos, directores de centros universitarios y secretarías académicas. La aplicación de los instrumentos se realizó de forma colectiva en una sesión en horario de mañana y tarde, durante los cursos académicos 2007/2008 y 2008/2009. Los resultados del estudio confirman la presencia de patrones de violencia psicológica en las relaciones de pareja de los estudiantes universitarios/as. Destacan como subfactores de maltrato psicológico ejercidos con mayor frecuencia en estos jóvenes los situados en el factor Indiferencia, en oposición a aquellos menos habituales comprendidos en el factor Bondad aparente. En cuanto a la relación entre las conductas psicológicamente abusivas y las competencias emocionales durante el noviazgo, se evidencian diferencias significativas. Finalmente se confirma la presencia de correlaciones significativas en la mayor parte de los factores y subfactores del maltrato psicológico en la pareja y las diferentes competencias emocionales. Los hallazgos del estudio sugieren en términos generales que los indicadores del maltrato psicológico en la pareja comienzan a manifestarse durante las relaciones de noviazgo, concretamente: trivializaciones, reproches, no empatía ni apoyo, juzgar, criticar, corregir, insistencia abusiva, acusaciones, etc. Se aprecia como la manifestación más habitual la falta de implicación afectiva que imposibilita la empatía, el apoyo y el respeto hacia la individualidad de la víctima, promoviendo conductas de monopolio por parte del agresor en la pareja. Asimismo se confirma la existencia de una mayor tendencia al empleo de las diferentes manifestaciones de violencia psicológica por parte de aquellos estudiantes universitarios/as con recursos emocionales más precarios. Datos que adquieren una mayor consistencia conforme revisamos los múltiples estudios que actúan como soporte empírico. En este sentido, el mayor reto es la promoción del análisis científico de la violencia psicológica en las relaciones de noviazgo, así como su orientación al diseño de programas de prevención primaria centrados en el desarrollo de la educación emocional como elemento central para el establecimiento de relaciones de parejas plenas y saludables.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Psychological abuse]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[emotional intelligence]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[pre-marital relationships violence]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[prevention]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Maltrato psicológico]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[inteligencia emocional]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[relaciones prematrimoniales violentas]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[prevención]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[ <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="4">Art&iacute;culo original</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="4">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="4"><b>La competencia emocional como recurso inhibidor para la perpetraci&oacute;n del maltrato psicol&oacute;gico en la pareja</b></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="3"><b>Emotional competence as a resource to inhibit psychological abuse in couples</b></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Macarena Bl&aacute;zquez&#150;Alonso,<sup>1</sup> Juan Manuel Moreno&#150;Manso,<sup>1</sup> Ma. Elena Garc&iacute;a&#150;Baamonde S&aacute;nchez,<sup>1 </sup>Elo&iacute;sa Guerrero&#150;Barona<sup>1</sup></b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i><sup>1</sup> Departamento de Psicolog&iacute;a. Facultad de Educaci&oacute;n. Universidad de Extremadura, Espa&ntilde;a.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Correspondencia:</b>     <br> Juan Manuel Moreno Manso.     <br> Avenida de Elvas s/n 06006 Badajoz (Espa&ntilde;a).     <br> Tel: 0034&#150;92 428&#150;9501 Fax: 0034&#150;92 427&#150;0214.     <br> E&#150;mail: <a href="mailto:jmmanso@unex.es">jmmanso@unex.es</a></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Recibido primera versi&oacute;n: 23 de marzo de 2011.     <br> Segunda versi&oacute;n: 21 de septiembre de 2011.     <br> Aceptado: 24 de noviembre de 2011.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>SUMMARY</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Nowadays, violence within couples is the most alarming form of interpersonal violence. It could even be considered a public health problem.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Nevertheless, although the magnitude is as serious as the repercussions of the aggression suffered by the victims, there is a general tendency to restrict the focus of attention to the physical aspect of the problem.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Thus, the study of psychological abuse is relegated to a secondary plane, ignoring those works that demonstrate the presence of psychological aggression with serious consequences, comparable to or even greater than those of a physical nature, even though the former are more difficult to predict.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">For this reason, there is little consensus concerning the specific behaviour patterns that make up psychological abuse.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Nevertheless, among its most evident characteristics, we can point to such manifestations as insults, criticism, humiliations, disparagement or ridicule, both in public and in private, social and economic isolation, repeated threats to either abandon the relationship or to seek a divorce, threats of abuse towards the victims or their loved ones and those related with harming or destroying the victim's cherished belongings, whether they be objects or animals, which may be psychologically traumatic for the victim.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">On the other hand, such conduct as manipulating information, affective neglect, denial of violence and putting the blame entirely on the victim can be listed as hidden expressions of psychological abuse in couples.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Similarly, several works have established a link between a wide range of psychological and behavioural symptoms connected to psychological violence in couples with numerous aspects of emotional intelligence.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">On an interpersonal level, conflictive couples seem to respond to communicative registers far removed from emotional intelligence or such partner skills as empathy, self&#150;control and co&#150;operation, thus leading to violent relational dynamics.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">The current research analyses psychological abuse in couples <i>(disparagement, hostility, indifference, intimidation, imposition of behaviour patterns, blaming and apparent kindness) </i>and its connection with the level of emotional competence <i>(emotiveness, efficacy, rigidity and illusion) </i>shown by the individuals that make up the couple.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">The research was carried out in the context of the University of Extremadura (Spain). The sample was selected randomly and was made up of 1 080 university students, of whom 332 were male and 748 female, aged in four categories covering the range from 17 to 23 years or more.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Following the sample selection, the deans and department directors were informed of the aims of the research, their approval was sought to implement the research instruments and to guarantee the collaboration of the lecturers in the various degree subjects chosen.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Then, a joint calendar was established to apply the tests. The surveys were carried out during the academic years 2007/2008 and 2008/2009.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">The tests were collectively administered in single sessions. Copies of the survey were handed out along with instructions. Volunteers were then told to fill in personal data and the instructions were read out aloud, stressing the importance of answering all the questions without exception. Finally, doubts were answered, taking care not to influence the subjects' replies.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">The confidentiality of the students' answers was guaranteed by coding each questionnaire with a numerical identification. After the questionnaires were handed in, the students' replies were checked for compliance with the protocols, and on the basis of atypical replies and questions left unanswered.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Only two questionnaires were eliminated due to protocol and no atypical answers or unanswered questions were found. The order was exactly the same for all the applications: First of all the <i>Inventory of Constructive Thought </i>(15 to 30 minutes), and secondly the <i>Questionnaire on Psychological Abuse </i>(15 to 20 minutes).</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">The main results of the study, with respect to the indicators of psychological abuse in couples, are as follows: the existence of patterns of psychological violence in the relationships of couples of university students is confirmed.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Of the most significant sub&#150;factors of psychological abuse, the most frequently used by these young people were those included in (3) <i>Indifference, </i>while the least commonly used were those included in (7) <i>Apparent Kindness.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">As for the relationship between psychologically abusive behaviour patterns and emotional competence during pre&#150;marital relationships, there are significant differences.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Finally, the presence of significant correlations between most factors and sub&#150;factors of psychological abuse in couples and the different emotional skills is confirmed.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">To conclude, it can be said that the research provides evidence that the indicators of psychological abuse in couples start to appear during pre&#150;marital relationships.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">An analysis of the results demonstrates that these subjects put into practice such indicators and/or manifestations as: trivializations, reproaches, lack of empathy or support, judging, criticising, correcting, abusive insistence and accusations.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">The students from the sample show no marked tendency towards the exercise of any form of psychological violence in particular.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Rather, they exhibit a heterogeneous behavioural repertory made up of disparagement, confrontation, lack of interest or affection, coercion, attempts to restrict the victim psychologically or socially, and blaming the victim for the aggressor's own violent response.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Also worthy of note are such specific manifestations as: the aggressor's interest in disparaging any behaviour or attitude adopted by the partner, showing serious resistance to listening and sharing the partner's reality, unless to chide them.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Similarly, the existence of behaviour patterns can be appreciated through which aggressors implacably and strictly censure their partner for not living up to their own expectations, forcing the situation until they can release their anger and personal tension and thus get their way with the victim.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">In addition, the presence of indifference can also be appreciated as the commonest expression of psychological violence among young people aged between 17 and 23. This demonstrates a lack of affective involvement that makes empathy, support and respect towards the individuality of the victim impossible.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">In turn, it promotes behaviour patterns of monopolising by the aggressor, at the same time as it generates problems for establishing effective communicative links within the couple and destroys the principles of mutuality and equality that are at the heart of any relationship.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">On the other hand, in this pre&#150;marital interaction, there are significant differences and relationships between the considered manifestations of psychological violence. There are certainly such behaviour patterns as disparagement, hostility, lack of affection, coercion, unreasonable demands, blaming and manipulative attitudes present in the relationships of the students studied.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">There is also the development of such skills as the subject's capacity to face potentially stressful situations ("emotiveness"), to adopt objective, optimistic and functional thought patterns ("efficacy"), to show tolerance when faced with frustration ("rigidity") and to avoid making judgements about reality based on optimism without objective reasons ("illusion").</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">However, such data are indicative of such revealing results as the existence of a greater tendency towards psychological violence in its different manifestations by those students with more precarious emotional resources, become even more consistent when the many related studies that act as empirical support are reviewed.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">With this work, we aim to contribute to the scientific analysis of psychological violence in the relationships of couples, as well as in the design of primary prevention programmes focused on the development of emotional education as a key tool for establishing full and healthy relationships between couples.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Key words: </b>Psychological abuse, emotional intelligence, pre&#150;marital relationships violence, prevention.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>RESUMEN</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La violencia contra la pareja constituye, actualmente, la forma m&aacute;s alarmante de violencia interpersonal. Sin embargo, a pesar de la magnitud del fen&oacute;meno, existe una tendencia general a restringir el foco de inter&eacute;s a la dimensi&oacute;n f&iacute;sica del mismo.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">De esta forma el estudio del maltrato psicol&oacute;gico es relegado a un segundo plano, ignorando aquellos trabajos que evidencian la presencia de agresiones psicol&oacute;gicas con secuelas de gravedad equiparada o superior a las de naturaleza f&iacute;sica, aunque las primeras presenten una mayor dificultad en su detecci&oacute;n.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Diferentes investigaciones establecen una vinculaci&oacute;n entre una amplia gama de s&iacute;ntomas psicol&oacute;gicos y comportamentales consecuentes a la violencia psicol&oacute;gica en la pareja, con varias de las dimensiones de la inteligencia emocional.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">De esta forma, las parejas con elevadas tasas de conflictividad responsables de la instauraci&oacute;n de la din&aacute;mica relacional violenta, parecen responder en el plano interpersonal con registros comunicativos alejados de la inteligencia emocional o de competencias como la empat&iacute;a, el autocontrol y la cooperaci&oacute;n hacia sus parejas.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En la presente investigaci&oacute;n se analiza el maltrato psicol&oacute;gico en las relaciones de pareja <i>(desvalorizaci&oacute;n, hostilidad, indiferencia, intimidaci&oacute;n, imposici&oacute;n de conductas, culpabilizaci&oacute;n y bondad aparente) </i>y su relaci&oacute;n con el nivel de competencias emocionales <i>(emotividad, eficacia, rigidez e ilusi&oacute;n) </i>que presentan los miembros que conforman la misma.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Se desarroll&oacute; en el contexto de la Universidad de Extremadura <i>(Espa&ntilde;a). </i>La selecci&oacute;n de la muestra fue aleatoria y se compuso de 1 080 estudiantes universitarios/as. De ellos, 332 varones y 748 mujeres de edades comprendidas en cuatro categor&iacute;as que abarcan el intervalo de 17 a 23 a&ntilde;os o m&aacute;s.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Una vez seleccionada la muestra establecimos un calendario para la aplicaci&oacute;n de los instrumentos, conjuntamente con los decanos, directores de centros universitarios y secretar&iacute;as acad&eacute;micas.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La aplicaci&oacute;n de los instrumentos se realiz&oacute; de forma colectiva en una sesi&oacute;n en horario de ma&ntilde;ana y tarde, durante los cursos acad&eacute;micos 2007/2008 y 2008/2009.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los resultados del estudio confirman la presencia de patrones de violencia psicol&oacute;gica en las relaciones de pareja de los estudiantes universitarios/as.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Destacan como subfactores de maltrato psicol&oacute;gico ejercidos con mayor frecuencia en estos j&oacute;venes los situados en el factor <i>Indiferencia, </i>en oposici&oacute;n a aquellos menos habituales comprendidos en el factor <i>Bondad aparente.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En cuanto a la relaci&oacute;n entre las conductas psicol&oacute;gicamente abusivas y las competencias emocionales durante el noviazgo, se evidencian diferencias significativas.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Finalmente se confirma la presencia de correlaciones significativas en la mayor parte de los factores y subfactores del maltrato psicol&oacute;gico en la pareja y las diferentes competencias emocionales.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los hallazgos del estudio sugieren en t&eacute;rminos generales que los indicadores del maltrato psicol&oacute;gico en la pareja comienzan a manifestarse durante las relaciones de noviazgo, concretamente: <i>trivializaciones, reproches, no empat&iacute;a ni apoyo, juzgar, criticar, corregir, insistencia abusiva, acusaciones, etc.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Se aprecia como la manifestaci&oacute;n m&aacute;s habitual la falta de implicaci&oacute;n afectiva que imposibilita la empat&iacute;a, el apoyo y el respeto hacia la individualidad de la v&iacute;ctima, promoviendo conductas de monopolio por parte del agresor en la pareja.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Asimismo se confirma la existencia de una mayor tendencia al empleo de las diferentes manifestaciones de violencia psicol&oacute;gica por parte de aquellos estudiantes universitarios/as con recursos emocionales m&aacute;s precarios. Datos que adquieren una mayor consistencia conforme revisamos los m&uacute;ltiples estudios que act&uacute;an como soporte emp&iacute;rico.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En este sentido, el mayor reto es la promoci&oacute;n del an&aacute;lisis cient&iacute;fico de la violencia psicol&oacute;gica en las relaciones de noviazgo, as&iacute; como su orientaci&oacute;n al dise&ntilde;o de programas de prevenci&oacute;n primaria centrados en el desarrollo de la educaci&oacute;n emocional como elemento central para el establecimiento de relaciones de parejas plenas y saludables.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Palabras clave: </b>Maltrato psicol&oacute;gico, inteligencia emocional, relaciones prematrimoniales violentas, prevenci&oacute;n.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>INTRODUCCI&Oacute;N</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En la actualidad la violencia en la pareja, y m&aacute;s espec&iacute;ficamente la infligida contra las mujeres,<sup>1</sup> constituye la forma de violencia interpersonal m&aacute;s preocupante.<sup>2</sup> No obstante, aunque diferentes hallazgos revelan datos que aseveran que un 80% de las v&iacute;ctimas de agresiones f&iacute;sicas rara vez han sido presas de estos malos tratos en ausencia de abusos psicol&oacute;gicos,<sup>3,4</sup> comprobamos que el inter&eacute;s por las manifestaciones de este tipo de maltrato suele restringirse exclusivamente a la dimensi&oacute;n f&iacute;sica.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Echebur&uacute;a, Fern&aacute;ndez&#150;Montalvo y Corral<sup>5</sup> aseveran la presentaci&oacute;n de estas agresiones con car&aacute;cter combinado, se&ntilde;alando que pueden oscilar desde una violencia f&iacute;sica y sexual, hasta las formas m&aacute;s graves y cr&oacute;nicas de la violencia psicol&oacute;gica. Algunos autores<sup>6</sup> la identifican como la &uacute;nica variable capaz de pronosticar la reincidencia de la violencia f&iacute;sica de forma significativa y consistente en la pareja. La violencia psicol&oacute;gica parece ser m&aacute;s frecuente y con consecuencias equiparables o m&aacute;s severas que las agresiones f&iacute;sicas<sup>7</sup> aunque &eacute;stas sean m&aacute;s dif&iacute;ciles de predecir.<sup>8&#150;10</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">No obstante, aunque existen algunas investigaciones<sup>11&#150;13</sup> que han intentado abordar los problemas psicol&oacute;gicos que originan que las v&iacute;ctimas de violencia soliciten ayuda profesional, seguimos encontr&aacute;ndonos con un vac&iacute;o importante en el &aacute;mbito cient&iacute;fico<sup>14</sup> de trabajos encaminados al estudio del maltrato psicol&oacute;gico con entidad propia.<sup>15&#150;19</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Esta inmadurez conceptual en la investigaci&oacute;n de la violencia psicol&oacute;gica nos plantea cuestiones tales como: &iquest;c&oacute;mo intervenir en algo que no sabemos con exactitud qu&eacute; es? El Instituto Andaluz de la Mujer (2006)<sup>20</sup> define el maltrato psicol&oacute;gico como "cualquier acto o conducta que hiera la dignidad y pueda provocar la desvalorizaci&oacute;n, humillaci&oacute;n, sufrimiento o enfermedad mental (insultos, vejaciones, crueldad mental), as&iacute; como aquellos actos o conductas que ocasionen un clima de angustia (esp&iacute;a, ignorar, controlar los recursos econ&oacute;micos, amenazas y coacciones)". En esta direcci&oacute;n, algunos trabajos contribuyen a precisar la existencia de m&uacute;ltiples indicadores de maltrato psicol&oacute;gico en sus distintos niveles de expresi&oacute;n (<a href="#c1">cuadro 1</a>).</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><a name="c1"></a></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><img src="/img/revistas/sm/v35n4/a4c1.jpg"></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">A partir de diferentes estudios, una amplia gama de s&iacute;ntomas psicol&oacute;gicos y comportamentales consecuentes a la violencia psicol&oacute;gica parecen asociarse a varias de las dimensiones de la inteligencia emocional (IE). Birchler<sup>24</sup> y C&aacute;ceres<sup>25,26</sup> ponen de manifiesto que las parejas con elevadas tasas de conflictividad predisponentes a la violencia, presentan patrones comunicativos que difieren del de las parejas saludables en factores como el grado de activaci&oacute;n fisiol&oacute;gica que alcanzan ambos miembros de la pareja a lo largo de la discusi&oacute;n. Aspecto que corrobora los trabajos de Goleman<sup>27</sup> al afirmar que las personas con elevados niveles de IE tienen mayor &eacute;xito en sus relaciones sociales, teniendo en cuenta que el conocimiento, valoraci&oacute;n y control de las emociones propias y de los dem&aacute;s, facilita la pac&iacute;fica resoluci&oacute;n de conflictos<sup>28</sup> por medio del desarrollo de actitudes de negociaci&oacute;n y empat&iacute;a. Varios estudios<sup>29,30</sup> analizan la relaci&oacute;n entre la IE y las relaciones interpersonales, verificando una correlaci&oacute;n positiva entre la IE, la empat&iacute;a, el autocontrol, las respuestas cooperativas y el bienestar subjetivo en situaciones sociales y relaciones afectivas como la pareja. Estos resultados no difieren de los de Fitness<sup>31</sup> quien constata que las personas que perciben, identifican y expresan emociones tienen unas relaciones m&aacute;s felices.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La gravedad del suceso conyugal violento depender&aacute; adem&aacute;s de las caracter&iacute;sticas del incidente traum&aacute;tico, de la forma en que el sujeto perciba dicha amenaza, incidiendo en la vulnerabilidad o las reacciones cognitivas, emocionales y conductuales<sup>32</sup> que configuran el repertorio de estrategias de afrontamiento del individuo ante el mismo.<sup>33,34</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La investigaci&oacute;n responde a dos objetivos: facilitar un mayor conocimiento en lo relativo a la presencia de manifestaciones de maltrato psicol&oacute;gico durante el noviazgo (desvalorizaci&oacute;n, hostilidad, indiferencia, intimidaci&oacute;n, imposici&oacute;n de conductas, culpabilizaci&oacute;n y bondad aparente); y analizar la relaci&oacute;n existente entre las mismas y su vinculaci&oacute;n con el repertorio emocional de los individuos.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>METODOLOG&Iacute;A </b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Participantes</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La investigaci&oacute;n se desarroll&oacute; en la Universidad de Extremadura (Espa&ntilde;a). Se analiza la relaci&oacute;n entre diversas competencias emocionales <i>("emotividad", "eficacia", "rigidez" e "ilusi&oacute;n") </i>y las manifestaciones de maltrato psicol&oacute;gico <i>("desvalorizaci&oacute;n", "hostilidad", "indiferencia", "intimidaci&oacute;n", "imposici&oacute;n de conductas", "culpabilizaci&oacute;n" y "bondad aparente") </i>en la pareja de un total de 1 080 estudiantes universitarios/as. Los sujetos son 332 varones y 748 mujeres de edades comprendidas en cuatro categor&iacute;as que abarcan el intervalo de 17 a 23 a&ntilde;os o m&aacute;s.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En el <a href="#c2">cuadro 2</a> se expone la distribuci&oacute;n de los estudiantes universitarios/as atendiendo a la edad y el sexo.</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><a name="c2"></a></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><img src="/img/revistas/sm/v35n4/a4c2.jpg"></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Instrumentos</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Aun existiendo algunos instrumentos validados para el diagn&oacute;stico de la violencia psicol&oacute;gica en la pareja,<sup>35,36</sup> procedimos a dise&ntilde;ar un Cuestionario de Maltrato Psicol&oacute;gico (CMP), dirigido a la poblaci&oacute;n universitaria. La construcci&oacute;n del CMP se llev&oacute; a cabo en dos etapas. En primer lugar, examinamos varios cuestionarios (<a href="#c3">cuadro 3</a>) utilizados en el &aacute;mbito hospitalario para la detecci&oacute;n de casos de violencia en la pareja.</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><a name="c3"></a></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><img src="/img/revistas/sm/v35n4/a4c3.jpg"></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">A continuaci&oacute;n se seleccionaron 200 reactivos de un total de 375, de acuerdo al grado de adecuaci&oacute;n sociocultural existente en relaci&oacute;n a la muestra. Se redactaron en forma de proposiciones declarativas simples. Los elementos procedentes de estas fuentes se clasificaron en siete categor&iacute;as homog&eacute;neas. Se eliminaron los elementos sobrantes y los restantes se volvieron a redactar en forma de frases que pudieran ser contestadas en una Escala tipo Likert, de cinco puntos, seg&uacute;n el grado de acuerdo o desacuerdo del sujeto con la afirmaci&oacute;n. La decisi&oacute;n para asignarlas a categor&iacute;as m&aacute;s amplias o m&aacute;s restringidas se resolvi&oacute; siempre a favor de estas &uacute;ltimas, con la idea de que podr&iacute;an incluirse en aquellas m&aacute;s amplias si las caracter&iacute;sticas psicom&eacute;tricas lo aconsejaban.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El siguiente paso consisti&oacute; en prescindir de las categor&iacute;as que inclu&iacute;an menos de tres elementos, incorpor&aacute;ndolas a categor&iacute;as m&aacute;s amplias. Se calcularon los coeficientes alfa de fiabilidad (KMO=0.940; Sig=0.000) y se eliminaron los elementos que reduc&iacute;an la fiabilidad de consistencia interna de las escalas, a&ntilde;adiendo otros que la aumentaban. Mediante este procedimiento se construyeron los siete factores y 23 subfactores arrojando &iacute;ndices de consistencia interna satisfactorios. Los coeficientes de fiabilidad de los 92 elementos que componen el cuestionario (KMO=0.850; Sig=0.000) se obtuvieron en una muestra de 357 estudiantes universitarios, 158 varones y 199 mujeres de entre 17 y 23 a&ntilde;os o m&aacute;s. Los coeficientes fueron satisfactorios, aunque en el caso de los subfactores sean algo menor, lo que cabr&iacute;a esperar pues el n&uacute;mero de elementos que lo componen es inferior.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Finalmente, el CMP queda configurado por 92 &iacute;tems destinados a detectar el riesgo de maltrato psicol&oacute;gico en siete factores y 23 subfactores (<a href="#c4">cuadro 4</a>).</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><a name="c4"></a></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><img src="/img/revistas/sm/v35n4/a4c4.jpg"></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Para evaluar la IE utilizamos el Inventario de Pensamiento Constructivo CTI.<sup>48</sup> Esta prueba ha demostrado ser eficaz<sup>49</sup> para la evaluaci&oacute;n de habilidades adaptativas relacionadas con el &eacute;xito en la vida. Dispone de tres niveles de generalidad (<a href="#c5">cuadro 5</a>). Una escala global de pensamiento constructivo/destructivo; seis escalas principales con las formas b&aacute;sicas de pensamiento constructivo y destructivo; y 15 subescalas de las escalas principales que describen modos espec&iacute;ficos (<a href="#c5">cuadro 5</a>).</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><a name="c5"></a></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><img src="/img/revistas/sm/v35n4/a4c5.jpg"></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Procedimiento</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Las pruebas se administraron de forma colectiva en una sesi&oacute;n en horario de ma&ntilde;ana y tarde durante los cursos 2007/2008 y 2008/2009. El tiempo empleado fue 50&#150;60 minutos. El orden de aplicaci&oacute;n fue el mismo en todas las aplicaciones: CTI(15 a 30 minutos) y CMP(15 a 20 minutos), en segundo lugar.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Se procedi&oacute; a la entrega de los ejemplares con las instrucciones, cuya confidencialidad se asegur&oacute; codificando cada cuestionario a trav&eacute;s de un identificador num&eacute;rico. Se aclararon dudas y recalc&oacute; la importancia de no dejar ninguna pregunta sin contestar. &uacute;nicamente se eliminaron dos cuestionarios mal cumplimentados.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>RESULTADOS</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los an&aacute;lisis realizados fueron los siguientes: primero un an&aacute;lisis descriptivo de cada factor/subfactor de maltrato psicol&oacute;gico en los estudiantes que integran el estudio valorando la incidencia espec&iacute;fica de cada uno de ellos. En un primer momento, comprobamos si las variables cumplen los requisitos para realizar pruebas param&eacute;tricas, utilizando as&iacute; la prueba de Kolmogorov&#150;Smirnov para demostrar si nuestra distribuci&oacute;n es normal dentro de la poblaci&oacute;n, la prueba de Rachas que nos indica si la muestra es aleatoria y la prueba de Levene que evidencia si las varianzas son homog&eacute;neas. Constatando que es correcto utilizar pruebas param&eacute;tricas procedemos a realizar el ANOVA de un factor con la finalidad de estimar el efecto de la variable categ&oacute;rica competencias emocionales sobre la variable maltrato psicol&oacute;gico en la pareja en cada uno de los factores y subfactores. Y por &uacute;ltimo realizamos un an&aacute;lisis correlacional (correlaci&oacute;n por Pearson) entre las variables de estudio. A continuaci&oacute;n mostramos los resultados de la aplicaci&oacute;n de las pruebas.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En lo referente a los indicadores de maltrato psicol&oacute;gico existentes entre los j&oacute;venes universitarios/as, concluimos lo siguiente:</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los resultados del CMP, como se muestra en el <a href="#c6">cuadro 6</a>, confirman la posici&oacute;n de todas las puntuaciones obtenidas en niveles intermedios que oscilan entre valores de 1.5 y 2.49. Destacamos como subfactores de maltrato psicol&oacute;gico ejercidos con mayor frecuencia los situados en el factor (3) <i>Indiferencia, </i>en oposici&oacute;n a aquellos menos habituales comprendidos en el factor (7) <i>Bondad aparente, </i>teniendo en cuenta que los valores de codificaci&oacute;n utilizados en el SPSS constatan que cuanto m&aacute;s baja sea la puntuaci&oacute;n media obtenida, mayor ser&aacute; la incidencia de la variable de maltrato psicol&oacute;gico en cada caso (<a href="#c6">cuadro 6</a>).</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><a name="c6"></a></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><img src="/img/revistas/sm/v35n4/a4c6.jpg"></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los resultados indican la presencia de 158 sujetos que utilizan en mayor medida manifestaciones de maltrato psicol&oacute;gico basadas en conductas de <i>Desvalorizaci&oacute;n </i>(14.6%) y <i>Culpabilizaci&oacute;n </i>(14.7%) en sus relaciones de pareja. Comprobamos que un 14.4% de los j&oacute;venes (n=156) utilizan con mayor frecuencia en la pareja comportamientos de <i>Hostilidad, Imposici&oacute;n de conductas y Bondad aparente.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En un an&aacute;lisis pormenorizado de cada factor, comprobamos que entre las manifestaciones de <i>Desvalorizaci&oacute;n </i>llevadas a cabo con m&aacute;s frecuencia por los sujetos destacan las <i>Trivializaciones, </i>alcanzando niveles de ejecuci&oacute;n altos (35%) y muy altos (1.9%) en 399 de los sujetos estudiados frente al ejercicio de comportamientos de <i>Desprecio </i>que, en un 59.2% de los casos se presenta como menos habitual. En relaci&oacute;n a las manifestaciones de <i>Hostilidad, </i>resaltar las conductas de <i>Reproche </i>como las ejercidas en mayor medida (42.6%), en contraste con los <i>Insultos </i>(14%). Observamos que la expresi&oacute;n de <i>Indiferencia </i>en la pareja m&aacute;s habitual en los sujetos (n=278) son las muestras de <i>No empatia ni apoyo, </i>mientras que si nos centramos en las de <i>Intimidaci&oacute;n, </i>comprobamos que las conductas m&aacute;s ejercidas por los sujetos (n=328) son las consistentes en <i>Juzgar, criticar y corregir </i>(30.4%) frente a las <i>Conductas destructivas </i>(21%). Con respecto a las manifestaciones basadas en la <i>Imposici&oacute;n de conductas </i>en la pareja, constatamos la conducta de <i>Insistencia abusiva </i>(44.8%) como la modalidad de maltrato psicol&oacute;gico m&aacute;s practicada en las relaciones (n=484) frente a los <i>Sabotajes </i>(n=206). En cuanto a las muestras de <i>Culpabilizaci&oacute;n, </i>la ejecuci&oacute;n de <i>Acusaciones </i>(39,3%) constituye la manifestaci&oacute;n empleada en mayor medida(n= 424), en contraposici&oacute;n a las manifestaciones de <i>Negaci&oacute;n/Desmentida </i>(n=169). Por &uacute;ltimo, constatamos una mayor participaci&oacute;n de sujetos (n=583) en el desempe&ntilde;o de conductas de <i>Bondad aparente </i>(54%), aunque situados en valores medios.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El an&aacute;lisis correlacional revela la presencia de correlaciones significativas en la mayor parte de los factores y subfactores del maltrato psicol&oacute;gico y las competencias emocionales (<a href="/img/revistas/sm/v35n4/a4c7.jpg" target="_blank">cuadros 7</a> y <a href="/img/revistas/sm/v35n4/a4c8.jpg" target="_blank">8</a>). Los resultados indican que los j&oacute;venes con menores recursos emocionales utilizan en mayor medida la violencia psicol&oacute;gica (cr&iacute;ticas, insultos, descalificaciones, minusvalorizaci&oacute;n, hostilidad, desapego, coartaci&oacute;n, exigencias desmedidas, ridiculizaci&oacute;n, culpabilizaci&oacute;n y manipulaci&oacute;n) en sus relaciones de pareja.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En relaci&oacute;n al ANOVA de un factor, los resultados relativos a las diferencias en los factores/subfactores del maltrato psicol&oacute;gico y las principales competencias emocionales, evidencian diferencias significativas (<a href="/img/revistas/sm/v35n4/a4c9.jpg" target="_blank">cuadro 9</a>).</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>DISCUSI&Oacute;N</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La investigaci&oacute;n evidencia que los indicadores del maltrato psicol&oacute;gico aparecen en las relaciones de noviazgo.<sup>50</sup> Se muestra la puesta en pr&aacute;ctica de manifestaciones como: <i>trivializaciones, reproches, no empatia ni apoyo, juzgar, criticar, corregir, insistencia abusiva, acusaciones. </i>Los j&oacute;venes no manifiestan una tendencia significativamente marcada hacia el ejercicio de una modalidad de violencia psicol&oacute;gica, exhibiendo un heterog&eacute;neo repertorio conductual conformado por comportamientos de infravaloraci&oacute;n, enfrentamiento, falta de inter&eacute;s o afecto, coacciones, intentos de restricci&oacute;n psicol&oacute;gica y social, y culpabilizaci&oacute;n. Destacamos como manifestaciones, el inter&eacute;s del agresor por minusvalorar cualquier conducta que adopta la pareja, presentando resistencia a escuchar y compartir la realidad de la misma, a no ser que sea con fines correctivos. Evidenciamos conductas mediante las que &eacute;ste censura la ausencia de comportamientos alejados de sus propias expectativas, forzando las situaciones hasta desahogar su ira o tensi&oacute;n personal y conseguir de la v&iacute;ctima sus deseos. Se observa la presencia de <i>indiferencia </i>como la expresi&oacute;n m&aacute;s habitual de violencia psicol&oacute;gica. Esto pone de manifiesto una falta de implicaci&oacute;n afectiva que imposibilita la empat&iacute;a, el apoyo y el respeto hacia la v&iacute;ctima, promoviendo conductas de monopolio por parte del agresor, al tiempo que genera dificultades para el establecimiento de lazos comunicativos efectivos entre los mismos y destruye los principios de igualdad en la pareja.<sup>51</sup> Gottman<sup>52</sup> identific&oacute; cuatro factores claves designados como "los cuatro jinetes del Apocalipsis" que actuaban como predictores altamente probables del fracaso en la relaci&oacute;n conyugal y de la din&aacute;mica circular violenta. Nos referimos al: criticismo, defensividad, desprecio e indiferencia o <i>"stonewalling". </i>Si tenemos en cuenta que Tapia<sup>53</sup> identifica estos dos &uacute;ltimos como los facilitadores de peor pron&oacute;stico relacional, nos parece destacable que la manifestaci&oacute;n de maltrato psicol&oacute;gico m&aacute;s habitual entre los j&oacute;venes analizados sea la <i>indiferencia </i>o ausencia de muestras de afecto, por entra&ntilde;ar un mayor riesgo de conflicto en la interacci&oacute;n conyugal, debido a los elevados niveles de estr&eacute;s emocional que origina.<sup>54</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Si bien nuestros hallazgos resultan confirmatorios de la interacci&oacute;n coactiva en las relaciones de noviazgo, pueden calificarse de mesurados en relaci&oacute;n a otras investigaciones. Tal es el caso de la Encuesta Nacional de Violencia en las Relaciones de Noviazgo del Instituto Mexicano de la Juventud<sup>55</sup> con porcentajes de la magnitud del 75.8% de individuos de entre 15 y 24 a&ntilde;os que aseveran haber padecido malos tratos psicol&oacute;gicos durante el noviazgo.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Por otro lado, constatamos la existencia de diferencias significativas y relaciones entre las manifestaciones de violencia psicol&oacute;gica consideradas, asegurando la presencia de conductas de minusvalorizaci&oacute;n, hostilidad, desapego, coartaci&oacute;n, exigencias desmedidas, culpabilizaci&oacute;n y actitudes manipuladoras en los j&oacute;venes estudiados y el desarrollo de habilidades como la capacidad del sujeto para afrontar situaciones potencialmente estresantes ("emotividad"), adoptar un pensamiento optimista, objetivo y funcional ("eficacia"), mostrar tolerancia ante la frustraci&oacute;n ("rigidez") y evitar elaborar juicios acerca de la realidad basados en un optimismo sin correlatos objetivos ("ilusi&oacute;n"). Pero estos datos, indicativos de resultados tan reveladores como la existencia de una mayor tendencia al empleo de la violencia psicol&oacute;gica en sus diferentes manifestaciones por parte de aquellos universitarios/as con recursos emocionales m&aacute;s precarios, se hacen m&aacute;s consistentes conforme revisamos los m&uacute;ltiples estudios relacionados que act&uacute;an como soporte emp&iacute;rico. Echebur&uacute;a y Fern&aacute;ndez&#150;Montalvo<sup>56</sup> describen la violencia en la pareja como resultado de un estado emocional intenso que interact&uacute;a con actitudes de hostilidad, d&eacute;ficits en las habilidades comunicativas, resoluci&oacute;n de conflictos, estr&eacute;s, consumo abusivo de alcohol, celos y la vulnerabilidad percibida de la v&iacute;ctima.<sup>57</sup> De esta forma cobran sentido las teor&iacute;as que sugieren que la capacidad de regular las emociones negativas a trav&eacute;s del uso de las mismas como estrategias pr&aacute;cticas de afrontamiento<sup>58</sup> puede ayudar a evitar la perpetraci&oacute;n de la violencia &iacute;ntima.<sup>59</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Debemos tomar con precauci&oacute;n los resultados del estudio teniendo en cuenta la existencia de ciertos matices a nivel individual, como la mayor capacidad que muestran unos sujetos frente a otros en la elaboraci&oacute;n de procesamientos sofisticados de informaci&oacute;n emocional y su empleo como gu&iacute;a del pensamiento y la conducta.<sup>60</sup> Gohm<sup>61</sup> analiza los patrones de reacci&oacute;n del sujeto ante una situaci&oacute;n emocional, la capacidad de regular su estado de &aacute;nimo y las valoraciones que realiza al respecto, dise&ntilde;ando cuatro tipolog&iacute;as de individuo ("abrumado", "caliente", "cerebral" y "fr&iacute;o") que apuntan al tipo "caliente" como el m&aacute;s reactivo a situaciones emocionales y susceptible de incurrir en respuestas de violencia f&iacute;sica o psicol&oacute;gica.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Teniendo en cuenta la relevancia que alcanza el mundo emocional en las relaciones interpersonales de los sujetos durante la juventud y el papel de la IE como una herramienta con significaci&oacute;n estad&iacute;stica asociada a la calidad y satisfacci&oacute;n percibida de las relaciones interpersonales del individuo,<sup>62</sup> desde el presente estudio apostamos por la aplicaci&oacute;n de medidas de sensibilizaci&oacute;n y prevenci&oacute;n primaria que fomenten din&aacute;micas sanas y "abiertas" en la pareja<sup>63</sup> e impidan la aparici&oacute;n de condiciones insalubres, violentas y "cerradas", con el peor de los pron&oacute;sticos.<sup>64</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>REFERENCIAS</b></font></p>     <!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">1. 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