<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>2663-3981</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Revista cartográfica]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Rev. cartogr.]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>2663-3981</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S2663-39812024000100077</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.35424/rcarto.i108.4524</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Airborne GNSS reflectometry for coastal monitoring of sea state]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Monitoreo del estado del mar en zonas costeras usando GNSS reflectometría]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Moreno]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Mario]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="Af1">
<institution><![CDATA[,German Aerospace Center (DLR)  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
<country>Alemania</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<numero>108</numero>
<fpage>77</fpage>
<lpage>97</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S2663-39812024000100077&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S2663-39812024000100077&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S2663-39812024000100077&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[Abstract Sea level rise and sea state variability, resulting from climate change and global warming, are critical research areas. However, current techniques for observing and monitoring these phenomena have limitations in terms of spatial and temporal resolution, particularly in dynamic coastal zones. GNSS Reflectometry (GNSS-R) is an emerging bistatic radar-based technique that utilizes the GNSS direct (transmitter-receiver) and reflected (transmitter-reflection point-receiver) signals to extract properties of the reflecting surface. This study explores the potential of airborne GNSS-R as a means to monitor sea state in coastal areas by using the Doppler spread and reflectivity as observables. The paper aims to derive a sea state factor from the reflected signal power and the Doppler shift distribution to analyze its correlation with wind speed and significant wave height data obtained from the ERA5 model. The experiment involved four flights conducted along the coast between Calais and Boulogne-sur-Mer, France, in July 2019. A GNSS software receiver processes the direct and reflected signals, tracking and re-tracking the reflected signals with the aid of a specular reflection model. The resulting in-phase and quadrature components are analyzed in the spectral domain every minute to estimate the power, the surface reflectivity, and the relative Doppler shift. The findings reveal that the sea state factor and Doppler spreading are sensitive to sea state conditions, correlated with the ERA5 parameters, and influenced by the elevation angle of GNSS satellites. At low elevations (E&lt;10°), the sea state factor demonstrates an inverse relationship (anti-correlation) with the wind speed and significant wave height, while the Doppler distribution shows a correlation with these parameters. Both correlations decrease with increasing elevation angle. This research underscores the potential of airborne GNSS-R for monitoring sea state variability in coastal areas enhancing our understanding of the relationships between GNSS-R measurements and sea state parameters.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[Resumen El aumento del nivel del mar y la variabilidad del estado del mar, como resultado del cambio climático y el calentamiento global, son áreas de investigación críticas. Sin embargo, las técnicas actuales para observar y monitorear estos fenómenos tienen limitaciones en términos de resolución espacial y temporal, especialmente en zonas costeras. GNSS Reflectometría (GNSS-R) es una técnica emergente basada en radar biestático que utiliza señales GNSS directas (transmisor-receptor) y reflejadas (transmisor-punto de reflexión-receptor) para extraer propiedades de la superficie reflejante. Este estudio explora el potencial de la GNSS-R aérea como medio para monitorear el estado del mar en áreas costeras utilizando el efecto Doppler y la reflectividad como observables. El objetivo es calcular un factor de estado del mar (SSF) a partir de la potencia de la señal reflejada y analizar la distribución del desplazamiento Doppler para evaluar su correlación con la velocidad del viento y la altura significativa de las olas obtenidas del modelo ERA5. El experimento consistió en cuatro vuelos realizados entre Calais y Boulogne-sur-Mer (Francia) en Julio de 2019. Las señales se procesan mediante un receptor de software, rastreando las señales reflejadas asistido por un modelo de reflexión especular. Las señales resultantes se analizan en el dominio espectral cada minuto para estimar la reflectividad de la superficie y el desplazamiento Doppler relativo. Los resultados revelan que el SSF y la dispersión Doppler son sensibles a las condiciones del estado del mar, correlacionadas con los parámetros del modelo ERA5 e influenciadas por el ángulo de elevación de los satélites GNSS. A bajas elevaciones (E&lt;10°), el factor de estado del mar muestra una relación inversa con la velocidad del viento y la altura de las olas, mientras que la distribución Doppler muestra una correlación positiva con estos parámetros. Ambas correlaciones disminuyen a medida que aumenta el ángulo de elevación.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[airborne GNSS-Reflectometry]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[sea state]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Doppler spreading]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[reflectivity]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[climate change]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[GNSS Reflectometría aerotransportada]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[estado del mar]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Dispersión Doppler]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Reflectividad]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
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