<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>2594-1682</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Sintaxis]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Sintaxis]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>2594-1682</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Universidad Anáhuac México, Centro de Investigación para la Comunicación Aplicada]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S2594-16822024000200098</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36105/stx.2024n13.07</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Tiempo de polarización: una mirada a la crisis de la democracia a través de la comunicación política populista]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Time of polarization: a look at the crisis of democracy through populist political communication]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ruiz-Méndez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Alberto]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="Af1">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad Anáhuac México  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[Huixquilucan Estado de México]]></addr-line>
<country>Mexico</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<numero>13</numero>
<fpage>98</fpage>
<lpage>120</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S2594-16822024000200098&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S2594-16822024000200098&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S2594-16822024000200098&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[Resumen Este artículo tiene por objetivo ofrecer una perspectiva de la actual crisis de la democracia a partir del análisis del discurso político del populismo institucionalizado o populismo en el poder. Al analizar a esta forma de comunicación política, a partir de un enfoque performativo, se argumenta que una causa de la crisis democrática actual es la polarización afectiva, es decir, una forma de fragmentación social basada no en las diferencias políticas sino en una frontera identitaria, cuyo principal componente es la figura de un enemigo al que se despoja de su legitimidad para participar en la toma de decisiones colectivas que caracteriza a una democracia moderna. La construcción de este enemigo, por parte del populismo institucionalizado, se presenta como un significante performativo, es decir, como un elemento discursivo con el que se lleva a cabo una acción política, en este caso, la creación de un tiempo de polarización que provoca una crisis democrática entendida como una clausura de la constante búsqueda por ampliar libertades y derechos.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[Abstract This article aims to offer a perspective of the current crisis of democracy based on the analysis of the political discourse of institutionalized populism or populism in power. When analyzing this form of political communication, from a performative approach, it is argued that one cause of the current democratic crisis is affective polarization, that is, a form of social fragmentation based not on political differences but on an identity border, whose main component is the figure of an enemy who is stripped of his legitimacy to participate in the collective decision-making that characterizes a modern democracy. The construction of this enemy, by institutionalized populism, is presented as a performative signifier, that is, as a discursive element with which a political action is carried out, in this case, the creation of a time of polarization that provokes a democratic crisis understood as a closure of the constant search to expand freedoms and rights.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[democracia]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[populismo]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[polarización afectiva]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[comunicación política]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[democracy]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[populism]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[affective polarization]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[political communication]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><back>
<ref-list>
<ref id="B1">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Alcántara]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Barragán]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Borsani]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[H.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Villareal]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[La política en América Latina tras la pandemia]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<numero>^sEl mundo pos covid-19. ¿Cambio de paradigma?</numero>
<issue>^sEl mundo pos covid-19. ¿Cambio de paradigma?</issue>
<supplement>El mundo pos covid-19. ¿Cambio de paradigma?</supplement>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Latinoamérica 21]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B2">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Águila R. del]]></surname>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[La democracia en sus textos]]></source>
<year>2016</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Alianza]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B3">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Applebaum]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[El ocaso de la democracia. La seducción del autoritarismo]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Debate]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B4">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Arancibia Carrizo]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. P.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Salinas Muñoz]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Comunicación política y democracia en América Latina]]></source>
<year>2016</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Gedisa Editorial]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B5">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<collab>AA. VV.</collab>
<source><![CDATA[El gran retroceso. Un debate internacional sobre el reto urgente de reconducir el rumbo de la democracia]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Seix Barral]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B6">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Bell]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Fukuyama]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[F.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Revel]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J-F.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[¿Ideologías sin futuro?, ¿futuro sin ideologías?]]></source>
<year>1993</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Complutense]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B7">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Bobbio]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[N.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[La teoría de las formas de gobierno en la historia del pensamiento político]]></source>
<year>2019</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Fondo de Cultura Económica]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B8">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Bobbio]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[N.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Liberalismo y Democracia]]></source>
<year>2010</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Fondo de Cultura Económica]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B9">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Bobbio]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[N.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[El futuro de la democracia]]></source>
<year>1986</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Fondo de Cultura Económica]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B10">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Bucy]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E. P.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Foley]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. M.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lukito]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Doroshenko]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Shah]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D. V.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Pevehouse]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. C.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Wells]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Performing populism: Trump&#8217;s transgressive debate style and the dynamics of Twitter response]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[New Media &amp; Society]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
<volume>22</volume>
<numero>4</numero>
<issue>4</issue>
<page-range>634-58</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B11">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Canovan]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The People]]></source>
<year>2005</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Polity Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B12">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Campbell]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. E.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Polarized: Making sense of a divided America]]></source>
<year>2016</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Princeton University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B13">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Castells]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[La era de la información]]></source>
<year>2000</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Alianza]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B14">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Cervi]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[García]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[F.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Marín-Lladó]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Populism, Twitter, and COVID-19: Narrative, Fantasies, and Desires]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Soc. Sci.]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<volume>10</volume>
<numero>8</numero>
<issue>8</issue>
<page-range>294</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B15">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Cortés Rodas]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[F.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[El desafío del populismo en las sociedades contemporáneas]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[de la Peña]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. A.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Leyva]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lutz-Bachmann]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ortega]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Populismo y globalización en el siglo XXI]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[El Colegio Nacional]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B16">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Dahl]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[La poliarquía]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Battle]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Diez Textos Básicos de Ciencia Política]]></source>
<year>2001</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Ariel]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B17">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Darnton]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The True History of Fake News]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[The New York Review]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B18">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Diamond]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Facing Up to the Democratic Recession]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Journal of Democracy]]></source>
<year>2015</year>
<volume>26</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>141-55</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B19">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Esteinou Madrid]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mc Phail Fanger]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Dossier &#8220;Procesos de comunicación en la Cuarta Transformación&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Argumentos]]></source>
<year>2022</year>
<volume>35</volume>
<numero>99</numero>
<issue>99</issue>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B20">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Foa]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R. S.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mounk]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Y.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The signs of deconsolidation]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Journal of Democracy]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<volume>28</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>5-16</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B21">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Forero]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[O.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Democracias de baja intensidad]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Opera]]></source>
<year>2003</year>
<volume>3</volume>
<numero>3</numero>
<issue>3</issue>
<page-range>19-39</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B22">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Gamboa]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Jaramillo Jassir]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Polarización(es), populismo(s) y democracia(s)]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Desafíos]]></source>
<year>2022</year>
<volume>34</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<issue>2</issue>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B23">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Güvercin]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Digitalization and populism: Cross-country evidence]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Technology and Society]]></source>
<year>2022</year>
<volume>68</volume>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B24">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Held]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Modelos de democracia]]></source>
<year>2007</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Alianza]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B25">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Huntington]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S. P.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century]]></source>
<year>1993</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Oklahoma University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B26">
<nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>International IDEA</collab>
<source><![CDATA[The Global State of Democracy. The New Cheks and Balances]]></source>
<year>2023</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B27">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Kazin]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Michael]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Populist Passion: An American History]]></source>
<year>1995</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Lawbook Exchange]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B28">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Laclau]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[On Populist Reason]]></source>
<year>2005</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Verso]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B29">
<nlm-citation citation-type="">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lagos]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[El fin de la tercera ola de democracias]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B30">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lapu]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[N.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rodríguez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Zechmeister]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Pulse of democracy]]></source>
<year>2023</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[LAPOP]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B31">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lapu]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[N.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rodríguez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Zechmeister]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Pulse of democracy]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[LAPOP]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B32">
<nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>Latinobarómetro</collab>
<source><![CDATA[La recesión democrática en América Latina]]></source>
<year>2023</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B33">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Levitsky]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Way]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Elecciones sin democracia. El surgimiento del autoritarismo competitivo]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Estudios Políticos]]></source>
<year>2004</year>
<numero>24</numero>
<issue>24</issue>
<page-range>159-76</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B34">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lyotard]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. F.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[La condición posmoderna]]></source>
<year>2006</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Cátedra Universitario]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B35">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Machlup]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[F.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The production and distribution of knowledge in the United States]]></source>
<year>1962</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Princeton University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B36">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Macpherson]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C. B.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The life and times of liberal democracy]]></source>
<year>2012</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Oxford University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B37">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Manin]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[B.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Los principios del gobierno representativo]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Alianza]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B38">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Manucci]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Populism and the media]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rovira Kaltwasser]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Taggart]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ochoa Espejo]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ostiguy]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Oxford Handbook of Populism]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<page-range>467-88</page-range><publisher-name><![CDATA[Oxford University Pres]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B39">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Masuda]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Y.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[La sociedad informatizada como sociedad post-industrial]]></source>
<year>1984</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Fundesco]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B40">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[McCoy]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Reflexiones sobre el populismo y la polarización en América Latina y sus consecuencias para la democracia]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Desafíos]]></source>
<year>2022</year>
<volume>34</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<issue>2</issue>
<page-range>1-19</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B41">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[McCoy]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rahman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[T.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Murat]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Polarization and the Global Crisis of Democracy: Common Patterns, Dynamics, and Pernicious Consequences for Democratic Polities]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[American Behavioral Scientist]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>62</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>16-42</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B42">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[McIntyre]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Posverdad]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Cátedra]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B43">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mendieta Ramírez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[La democracia en tiempos de incertidumbre. El Bucle de la Comunicación Política]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Gedisa Editorial]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B44">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mendieta Ramírez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Estrada Rodríguez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. L.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Populismo Mediático en América Latina]]></source>
<year>2023</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Tirant Humanidades]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B45">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Merkel]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[W.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Luhrmann]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Resilience of democracies: response to iliberal and authoritarian challenges]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Democratization]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<volume>28</volume>
<numero>5</numero>
<issue>5</issue>
<page-range>869-84</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B46">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mill]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. S.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Sobre la libertad]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Akal]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B47">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Moffitt]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[B.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Populismo]]></source>
<year>2022</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Siglo XXI]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B48">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Moffitt]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[B.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Global Rise of Populism: Performance, Political Style, and Representation]]></source>
<year>2016</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Stanford University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B49">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Morlino]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Cambios hacia la democracia]]></source>
<year>2019</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Siglo Veintiuno Editores]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B50">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mouffe]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Por un populismo de izquierdas]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Siglo Veintiuno Editores]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B51">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mounk]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Y.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[El pueblo contra la democracia: Por qué nuestra libertad está en peligro y cómo salvarla]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Ediciones Paidós]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B52">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mudde]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The populist Zeitgeist]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Government and Opposition]]></source>
<year>2004</year>
<volume>39</volume>
<numero>3</numero>
<issue>3</issue>
<page-range>541-63</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B53">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mudde]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Cas]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Populism: An ideational approach]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rovira Kaltwasser]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Cristóbal]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Taggart]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Paul]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ochoa Espejo]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Paulina]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ostiguy]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Pierre]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Oxford Handbook of Populism]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Oxford University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B54">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mudde]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rovira Kaltwasser]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Populism and (liberal) democracy: A framework for analysis]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mudde]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Cas]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rovira Kaltwasser]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Cristóbal]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Populism in Europe and the Americas: Threat or Corrective for Democracy?]]></source>
<year>2013</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Cambridge University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B55">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Müller]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.-W.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[What Is Populism?]]></source>
<year>2016</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[University of Pasadena Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B56">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Murillo]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M. V.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Levitsky]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Brinks]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[La ley y la trampa en América Latina]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Siglo XXI]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B57">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Nora]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Minc]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[L&#8217;informatisation de la Societé]]></source>
<year>1978</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[La Documentation Francaise]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B58">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ostiguy]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Moffitt]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[B.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Who would identify with an &#8216;empty signifier&#8217;? The Relational, Performative Approach to Populism]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ostiguy]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Panizza]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[F.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Moffitt]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[B.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Populism in Global Perspective. A Performative and Discursive Approach]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<page-range>47-72</page-range><publisher-name><![CDATA[Routledge]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B59">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[O&#8217;Donnell]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Delegative Democracy]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Journal of Democracy]]></source>
<year>1994</year>
<volume>5</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>55-69</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B60">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Offe]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Las nuevas democracias]]></source>
<year>2005</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Editorial Hacer]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B61">
<nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>Oxford Lenguages</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Word of the Year 2016]]></source>
<year>2016</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B62">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Pappas]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[T. S.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Populism and Liberal Democracy. A Comparative and Theoretical Analysis]]></source>
<year>2019</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Oxford University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B63">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Pappas]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[T. S.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Dealing with modern illiberal democracies: From vintage electoral autocracy to today&#8217;s jumble of populism with nativism]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Muis]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Trost]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L. van]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Will human rights survive iliberal democracy?]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Amnesty International]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B64">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Penteado]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Goya]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D. H.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[dos Santos]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P. D.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Jardim]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Populismo, desinformação e Covid-19: comunicação de Jair Bolsonaro no Twitter]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Media &amp; Jornalismo]]></source>
<year>2022</year>
<volume>22</volume>
<numero>40</numero>
<issue>40</issue>
<page-range>239-60</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B65">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Peruzzotti]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Populism in democratic times: Populism, representative democracy and the debate on democratic deepening]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Torre]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Carlos de la]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Arnson]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Cynthia J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Latin American Populism in the Twenty-First Century]]></source>
<year></year>
<edition>2013</edition>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Johns Hopkins University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B66">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rahtje]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Van Bavel]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Linden]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S. van der]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Out-grup animosity engagement on social media]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[PNAS]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<volume>118</volume>
<numero>26</numero>
<issue>26</issue>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B67">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Regt]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S. de]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Don´t ignore citizen&#8217;s vie won democracy when trying to understand illiberal democracy]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Muis]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Trost]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L. van]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Will human rights survive iliberal democracy?]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Amnesty International]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B68">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rivero]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Ángel]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Populismo: ¿cómo destruir la democracia en nombre de la democracia?]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rivero]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Á.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Zarzalejos]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Palacio]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. del]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Geografía del populismo: un viaje por el universo del populismo desde sus orígenes hasta Trump]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Tecnos]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B69">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Roberts]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[K. M.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Populism and Polarization in Comparative Perspective: Constitutive, Spatial and Institutional Dimensions]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Government and Opposition]]></source>
<year>2022</year>
<volume>57</volume>
<page-range>680-702</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B70">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rodríguez Zepeda]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[El espacio de los ausentes: discriminación y representación democrática]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Salazar Carrión]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Democracia o posdemocracia. Problemas de la representación política en las democracias contemporáneas, XXX-XXX]]></source>
<year>2014</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Fontamara]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B71">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rousseau]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Contrato Social]]></source>
<year>2007</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Espasa Calpe]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B72">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ruiz-Méndez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[La paradoja de las burbujas informativas]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Este País]]></source>
<year>2023</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B73">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ruiz-Méndez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Tiempo de preguntas. Retos de la democracia latinoamericana]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Logos]]></source>
<year>2022</year>
<volume>139</volume>
<page-range>13-30</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B74">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ruiz-Méndez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[La polarización en las democracias contemporáneas. Esbozo de un modelo analítico de comunicación política populista]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Sintaxis]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<numero>7</numero>
<issue>7</issue>
<page-range>33-49</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B75">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Salazar Carrión]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Presidencialismo: ¿autocracia o democracia?]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Salazar Carrión]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[¿Democracia o posdemocracia?]]></source>
<year>2014</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Fontamara]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B76">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Salmon]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[La era del enfrentamiento. Del storytelling a la ausencia del relato]]></source>
<year>2019</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Ediciones Península]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B77">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Sani]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Sartori]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Polarización, fragmentación y confrontación en las democracias occidentales]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Revista del Departamento de Derecho Político]]></source>
<year>1980</year>
<volume>7</volume>
<page-range>9-37</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B78">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Sartori]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Teoría de la Democracia]]></source>
<year>1991</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Alianza]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B79">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Sartori]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Parties and Party Systems: a framework for análisis]]></source>
<year>1976</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Cambridge University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B80">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Schedler]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Rethinking Political Polarization]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Political Sciencie Quarterly]]></source>
<year>2023</year>
<page-range>1-25</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B81">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Schumpeter]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Capitalismo, socialismo y democracia]]></source>
<year>2016</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Página Indómita]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B82">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Sisk]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[T.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Democracy and Resilience: Conceptual Approaches and Considerations]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B83">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Spijkers]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[O.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Public participation in an illiberal democracy]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Muis]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Trost]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L. van]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Will human rights survive iliberal democracy?]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Amnesty International]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B84">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Stravakakis]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Y.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Paradoxes of Polarization: Democracy&#8217;s Inherent Division and the (Anti-) Populist Challenge]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[American Behavioral Scientist]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<page-range>1-16</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B85">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Taylor]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[La ética de la autenticidad]]></source>
<year>1994</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Ediciones Paidós]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B86">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Terchek]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Conte]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[T.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Theories of Democracy. A Reader]]></source>
<year>2001</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Rowman &amp; Littlefield Publishers]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B87">
<nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>The Economist Intelligence Unit</collab>
<source><![CDATA[]]></source>
<year>2023</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B88">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Tocqueville]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A. de]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[La democracia en América]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Fondo de Cultura Económica]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B89">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Trejo Delarbre]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Posverdad, populismo, pandemia]]></source>
<year>2022</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Ediciones Cal y Arena]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B90">
<nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>UNESCO</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Hacia las Sociedades del Conocimiento. Jouve]]></source>
<year>2005</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[Mayenne France ]]></publisher-loc>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B91">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Urbinati]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[N.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Teoría política del populismo]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Revista Mexicana de Sociología]]></source>
<year>2023</year>
<volume>85</volume>
<numero>especial</numero>
<issue>especial</issue>
<page-range>197-225</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B92">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Urbinati]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[N.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Me the People. How Populism Transform Democracy]]></source>
<year>2019</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Harvard University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B93">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Urbinati]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[N.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Democracy Disfigured. Opinion, Truth, and the People]]></source>
<year>2014</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Harvard Univesity Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B94">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Urbinati]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[N.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Representative Democracy. Principles &amp; Genealogy]]></source>
<year>2006</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[The University of Chicago Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B95">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Waisbord]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[¿Es válido atribuir la polarización política a la comunicación digital? Sobre burbujas, plataformas y polarización afectiva]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[SAAP]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
<volume>14</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<issue>2</issue>
<page-range>249-79</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B96">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Weyland]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[K.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Clarifying a contested concept: Populism in the study of Latin American Politics]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Comparative Politics]]></source>
<year>2001</year>
<volume>24</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>1-22</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B97">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Woldenberg]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Contra el autoritarismo]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Cal y Arena]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B98">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Zakaria]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[F.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad]]></source>
<year>2007</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[W. W. Norton &amp; Company]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B99">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ziblatt]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Levitsky]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Cómo mueren las democracias]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Ariel]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
</ref-list>
</back>
</article>
