<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0301-5092</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Veterinaria México]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Vet. Méx]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0301-5092</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0301-50922010000200007</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Vacunas contra el virus del síndrome reproductivo y respiratorio porcino (PRRSV): escribiendo una historia]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Vaccines against porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV): writing a history]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Flores-Mendoza]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Lilián]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Hernández]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Jesús]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A. C.  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[Hermosillo Sonora]]></addr-line>
<country>México</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2010</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2010</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>41</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<fpage>139</fpage>
<lpage>159</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0301-50922010000200007&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0301-50922010000200007&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0301-50922010000200007&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[The porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) constitutes one of the most serious problems of the pig industry in the world. It affects pigs of all ages and causes reproductive and respiratory disorders that create great economic losses. These increase due to the rapid spread of the disease and the inefficiency of the commercial vaccines. Modified live and killed vaccines are the two types of commercial vaccines currently available on the market for American and European strains. Although these vaccines can reduce disease symptoms and viremia, they do not prevent infection in any way and cross-presentation is variable against heterologous virus. Furthermore, it has been reported that the vaccine's virus can spread to other susceptible animals. For these reason, many studies focused on the development of new vaccines that include different vectors for the development of DNA vaccines by evaluating various structural proteins. The use of PRRSV infectious clones, as well as the construction of viral chimeras between the vaccine virus and highly infectious virus have also been evaluated. All these strategies have failed to develop an effective vaccine against PRRSV; therefore it remains as a major challenge.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[El virus del síndrome reproductivo y respiratorio porcino (PRRSV) constituye uno de los problemas más grandes de la industria porcina. Afecta a cerdos de todas las edades, causa problemas reproductivos y respiratorios que generan pérdidas económicas millonarias. Éstas van en aumento debido a la rápida diseminación del virus y a la poca eficiencia de las vacunas comerciales para su tratamiento. Actualmente existen dos tipos de vacunas contra el PRRSV: una utiliza el virus atenuado y otra el virus inactivado. Existen en el mercado ambos tipos, tanto para cepas americanas como europeas. Aun cuando dichas vacunas disminuyen los síntomas de la enfermedad y la viremia, no evitan la infección y la protección cruzada es variable frente a virus heterólogos. Además, se ha informado que el virus vacunal puede diseminarse a otros animales susceptibles. Por esta razón muchos estudios se han orientado al desarrollo de nuevas vacunas que incluyen diferentes vectores para el desarrollo de vacunas de ADN evaluando varias proteínas estructurales. También se ha evaluado el empleo de clones infecciosos de PRRSV, así como la construcción de quimeras virales entre el virus vacunal y un virus altamente infeccioso. Todas estas estrategias no han logrado desarrollar una vacuna eficaz contra el PRRSV, por lo que dicho propósito sigue siendo un reto muy importante.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[PRRSV]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[vaccines]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Virus del Síndrome reproductivo y respiratorio porcino]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[PRRS]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[vacunas]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[ <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="4">Art&iacute;culo de revisi&oacute;n</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="4">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="4"><b>Vacunas contra el virus del s&iacute;ndrome reproductivo y respiratorio porcino (PRRSV): escribiendo una historia</b></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="3"><b>Vaccines against porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV): writing a history</b></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Lili&aacute;n Flores&#150;Mendoza* Jes&uacute;s Hern&aacute;ndez*</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>* Laboratorio de Inmunolog&iacute;a, Centro de Investigaci&oacute;n en Alimentaci&oacute;n y Desarrollo, A. C., Carretera a la Victoria, Km 0.6, Hermosillo, Sonora, 83000, M&eacute;xico, Tel&eacute;fono y Fax: (662) 289&#150;24&#150;00, ext. 294,</i> Correo electr&oacute;nico: <a href="mailto:jhdez@ciad.mx">jhdez@ciad.mx</a></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Recibido el 23 de abril de 2009.    <br> Aceptado el 25 de enero de 2010.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Abstract</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">The porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) constitutes one of the most serious problems of the pig industry in the world. It affects pigs of all ages and causes reproductive and respiratory disorders that create great economic losses. These increase due to the rapid spread of the disease and the inefficiency of the commercial vaccines. Modified live and killed vaccines are the two types of commercial vaccines currently available on the market for American and European strains. Although these vaccines can reduce disease symptoms and viremia, they do not prevent infection in any way and cross&#150;presentation is variable against heterologous virus. Furthermore, it has been reported that the vaccine's virus can spread to other susceptible animals. For these reason, many studies focused on the development of new vaccines that include different vectors for the development of DNA vaccines by evaluating various structural proteins. The use of PRRSV infectious clones, as well as the construction of viral chimeras between the vaccine virus and highly infectious virus have also been evaluated. All these strategies have failed to develop an effective vaccine against PRRSV; therefore it remains as a major challenge.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Key words: </b>Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome, PRRSV, vaccines.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Resumen</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El virus del s&iacute;ndrome reproductivo y respiratorio porcino (PRRSV) constituye uno de los problemas m&aacute;s grandes de la industria porcina. Afecta a cerdos de todas las edades, causa problemas reproductivos y respiratorios que generan p&eacute;rdidas econ&oacute;micas millonarias. &Eacute;stas van en aumento debido a la r&aacute;pida diseminaci&oacute;n del virus y a la poca eficiencia de las vacunas comerciales para su tratamiento. Actualmente existen dos tipos de vacunas contra el PRRSV: una utiliza el virus atenuado y otra el virus inactivado. Existen en el mercado ambos tipos, tanto para cepas americanas como europeas. Aun cuando dichas vacunas disminuyen los s&iacute;ntomas de la enfermedad y la viremia, no evitan la infecci&oacute;n y la protecci&oacute;n cruzada es variable frente a virus heter&oacute;logos. Adem&aacute;s, se ha informado que el virus vacunal puede diseminarse a otros animales susceptibles. Por esta raz&oacute;n muchos estudios se han orientado al desarrollo de nuevas vacunas que incluyen diferentes vectores para el desarrollo de vacunas de ADN evaluando varias prote&iacute;nas estructurales. Tambi&eacute;n se ha evaluado el empleo de clones infecciosos de PRRSV, as&iacute; como la construcci&oacute;n de quimeras virales entre el virus vacunal y un virus altamente infeccioso. Todas estas estrategias no han logrado desarrollar una vacuna eficaz contra el PRRSV, por lo que dicho prop&oacute;sito sigue siendo un reto muy importante.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Palabras clave: </b>Virus del S&iacute;ndrome reproductivo y respiratorio porcino, PRRS, vacunas.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Introducci&oacute;n</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El s&iacute;ndrome reproductivo y respiratorio porcino (PRRS) es una enfermedad distribuida en la mayor&iacute;a de los pa&iacute;ses productores de carne de cerdo, donde genera millonarias p&eacute;rdidas econ&oacute;micas. Por ejemplo, Estados Unidos de Sm&eacute;rica, Canad&aacute; y Jap&oacute;n han registrado m&aacute;s de 50% de sus hatos contaminados con esa enfermedad.<sup>1&#150;3</sup> Actualmente, s&oacute;lo Noruega y Suecia permanecen libres de la enfermedad.<sup>4</sup> En M&eacute;xico no se ha registrado una cifra aproximada de p&eacute;rdidas; sin embargo, algunos estudios muestran que &eacute;stas var&iacute;an de 250 a 500 d&oacute;lares por hembra.<sup>5</sup> Aunadas a las p&eacute;rdidas anuales causadas por el PRRS, recientemente se han descrito brotes agudos con cepas altamente patog&eacute;nicas que incrementan estas cifras. En 2006 la organizaci&oacute;n China Animal Disease Control Center (CADC) inform&oacute; de un brote de PRRS que afect&oacute; a 2 120 000 cerdos con mortalidad de 20%.<sup>6</sup> Estas cifras presentan un panorama muy dif&iacute;cil para la industria porc&iacute;cola a causa del PRRS; en este contexto, en los &uacute;ltimos a&ntilde;os se ha tratado de desarrollar nuevas estrategias para el control y prevenci&oacute;n de la enfermedad.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En lo que respecta a la enfermedad de PRRS se han logrado muchos avances en campos como la epidemiolog&iacute;a, transmisi&oacute;n, caracter&iacute;sticas cl&iacute;nicas, etc.<sup>7,8</sup> Otro aspecto estudiado ampliamente es el agente causal, el virus del s&iacute;ndrome reproductivo y respiratorio porcino (PRRSV). Respecto de este &uacute;ltimo, se conoce su estructura, las c&eacute;lulas susceptibles y el mecanismo de infecci&oacute;n celular.<sup>9&#150;14</sup> Sin embargo, no se han logrado esclarecer aspectos importantes como la evasi&oacute;n del sistema inmune por el virus y el desarrollo de vacunas eficientes para eliminar o prevenir la enfermedad, a pesar de las investigaciones realizadas hasta el momento.<sup>15</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b><i>Generalidades del virus del s&iacute;ndrome reproductivo y respiratorio porcino</i></b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El PRRSV pertenece a la familia Arteriviridae (g&eacute;nero <i>Arterivirus, </i>orden Nidovirales). Se trata de un virus envuelto con un genoma de ARN de cadena sencilla, polaridad positiva de aproximadamente 15 Kb.<sup>16</sup> El genoma del PRRSV se compone en el extremo 5' de una regi&oacute;n corta no traducida (UTR, por sus siglas en ingl&eacute;s, <i>untranslated region) </i>seguida de nueve marcos de lectura abierta (ORF) llamados ORF1a, ORF1b, ORF2a, ORF2b, ORF3, ORF4, ORF5, ORF6 y ORF7.<sup>17&#150;19</sup> Los ORF1a y ORF1b constituyen aproximadamente 75% del tama&ntilde;o del genoma y codifican a una poliprote&iacute;na con actividad de ARN polimerasa (pp1a) y tambi&eacute;n la poliprote&iacute;na 1ab, producto de un cambio en el marco de lectura durante la traducci&oacute;n cercana al extremo 3' del ORF1a.<sup>20</sup> Los ORF 2a y 3&#150;7 codifican para las glicoprote&iacute;nas estructurales (GP) 2a, GP3, GP4, GP5 y las prote&iacute;nas no glicosiladas 2b, la prote&iacute;na M de membrana y la N de la nucleoc&aacute;pside. Tambi&eacute;n en el extremo 3' del genoma hay una regi&oacute;n no traducida seguida de una cola de poli A.<sup>17,18,21</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El ORF2 contiene un marco de lectura interno que codifica para una prote&iacute;na no glicosilada conocida como 2b. Se ha identificado la presencia de esta prote&iacute;na en c&eacute;lulas infectadas, as&iacute; como una respuesta anti&#150;2b en cerdos infectados con PRRSV.<sup>19 </sup>Recientemente se demostr&oacute; que la prote&iacute;na 2b es un componente integral del viri&oacute;n del PRRS.<sup>22</sup> La GP3 es la prote&iacute;na m&aacute;s glicosilada del PRRSV con siete sitios de N&#150;glicosilaci&oacute;n.<sup>23</sup> &Eacute;sta ha sido detectada en el viri&oacute;n de algunas cepas europeas; sin embargo, en cepas americanas su presencia a&uacute;n se cuestiona.<sup>24&#150;26</sup> Por su parte, la GP4 tiene cuatro sitios de N&#150;glicosilaci&oacute;n y se han identificado anticuerpos neutralizantes (AN) anti&#150;GP4; sin embargo, &eacute;stos son menos efectivos que los inducidos por GP5.<sup>27</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La GP5 es una prote&iacute;na transmembranal glicosilada que se puede dividir en varios dominios: un p&eacute;ptido se&ntilde;al, un ectodominio (con un n&uacute;mero variable de sitios potenciales de glicosilaci&oacute;n), una regi&oacute;n transmembranal y un endodominio.<sup>11,23</sup> En el ectodominio se han detectado dos ep&iacute;topes que inducen la producci&oacute;n de anticuerpos, de los cuales s&oacute;lo un tipo es neutralizante. Estos ep&iacute;topes se denominan A y B (el ep&iacute;tope B es el neutralizante).<sup>28 </sup>Este &uacute;ltimo es conservado entre los aislamientos de PRRS; sin embargo, no es inmunodominante, contrario al ep&iacute;tope A, el cual es inmunodominante e hipervariable. Estos ep&iacute;topes se encuentran separados por siete amino&aacute;cidos. Los cerdos infectados con PRRSV primeramente desarrollan anticuerpos no neutralizantes contra el ep&iacute;tope A y tiempo despu&eacute;s (cuatro semanas aproximadamente) aparecen los AN contra el ep&iacute;tope B. En tal contexto, el ep&iacute;tope A funciona como se&ntilde;uelo del virus, distrayendo de manera moment&aacute;nea la respuesta neutralizante.<sup>29 </sup>Se ha observado que la GP5 forma heterod&iacute;meros con la prote&iacute;na M en las part&iacute;culas virales.<sup>30</sup> Estos heterod&iacute;meros tambi&eacute;n se han relacionado con la infecci&oacute;n celular por su uni&oacute;n a mol&eacute;culas de hepar&aacute;n sulfato y sialoadesina, principalmente en macr&oacute;fagos.<sup>31,32</sup> Por su parte, la prote&iacute;na N codificada por el ORF7 constituye entre 20%&#150;40 % del contenido prote&iacute;nico del viri&oacute;n.<sup>20,30</sup> Esta prote&iacute;na contiene 26% de residuos b&aacute;sicos en el extremo N terminal, lo cual puede facilitar su interacci&oacute;n con el ARN del genoma.<sup>23</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Una caracter&iacute;stica importante del PRRSV es su alta variabilidad gen&eacute;tica. En base a sus diferencias gen&eacute;ticas, los aislados del PRRSV pueden dividirse en: genotipo europeo (prototipo virus Lelystad) y genotipo americano (prototipo virus VR&#150;2332). Estos genotipos tienen una similitud de nucle&oacute;tidos de 55% a 70% cuando se compara todo el genoma.<sup>33,34</sup> Se ha informado que en los aislados americanos existe mayor diversidad gen&eacute;tica, en comparaci&oacute;n con los europeos, que se encuentran gen&eacute;ticamente muy relacionados.<sup>35 </sup>Los genes que presentan mayor tasa de variabilidad son ORF5, ORF3 y ORF4, mientras que los genes de ORF2, ORF6 y ORF7 son los m&aacute;s conservados.<sup>33</sup></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La prote&iacute;na M del PRRSV es la m&aacute;s conservada, con similitud de 94% y 100% a nivel de amino&aacute;cidos, dentro del mismo genotipo (europeo o americano). Sin embargo, entre ambos genotipos s&oacute;lo hay 63% de identidad de amino&aacute;cidos.<sup>33</sup> En el extremo opuesto, la GP5 es la prote&iacute;na m&aacute;s heterog&eacute;nea, con 88%&#150;99% de identidad de amino&aacute;cidos entre cepas del mismo continente, y 52%&#150;55% de identidad entre genotipos.<sup>33 </sup>En lo que respecta a las prote&iacute;nas no estructurales (nsp, por sus siglas en ingl&eacute;s), codificadas por el ORF1a y ORF1b, hay publicaciones recientes que muestran que la nsp2 presenta una regi&oacute;n de alta variabilidad (en las posiciones de amino&aacute;cidos 324 a 814) solamente con 40% de similitud de amino&aacute;cidos entre genotipos europeos y americanos, lo que representa el gen con la mayor tasa de variabilidad del PRRSV.<sup>36</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La alta variabilidad gen&eacute;tica del PRRSV complica el desarrollo de una respuesta inmune efectiva entre las cepas heter&oacute;logas en reinfecci&oacute;n. Constituye una de las principales limitantes en el desarrollo de vacunas, pues se ha observado que tras la vacunaci&oacute;n no existe protecci&oacute;n cruzada de 100% entre cepas heter&oacute;logas. Uno de los casos m&aacute;s representativos de este problema se present&oacute; en Dinamarca, en 1996, donde se aplic&oacute; la vacuna a base de un virus atenuado de la cepa americana VR2332, y posteriormente se observ&oacute; un brote de PRRSV con caracter&iacute;sticas at&iacute;picas. Cuando se analiz&oacute; la secuencia de estos virus, la identidad fue de 99.3% y 99.5%, respecto al prototipo americano VR2332 y al vacunal.<sup>37</sup> Este resultado indic&oacute; que la vacuna desarroll&oacute; un brote con el PRRSV e introdujo el genotipo americano al pa&iacute;s. Actualmente se considera que en Dinamarca al menos 40% de las granjas est&aacute;n contaminadas con las cepas americana y europea.<sup>38</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b><i>Respuesta inmune frente al PRRS</i></b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La respuesta inmune del cerdo frente al PRRSV es muy compleja y se deben considerar dos aspectos importantes que influyen en ella: alta variabilidad del virus y variabilidad en la respuesta de los cerdos infectados. Cuando estos &uacute;ltimos resultan con infecci&oacute;n por el PRRSV inducen una inmunidad capaz de proteger en reinfecciones contra virus hom&oacute;logos, e induce viremias prolongadas e infecciones persistentes.<sup>39 </sup>Estas caracter&iacute;sticas dan un panorama de la compleja interacci&oacute;n entre el PRRSV y la defensa de los cerdos al virus. Existen interrogantes sobre los eventos que inician la inmunidad durante la infecci&oacute;n, as&iacute; como del papel que desempe&ntilde;an tanto los anticuerpos como las c&eacute;lulas T. Tampoco est&aacute;n claros los mecanismos moleculares y celulares involucrados en la regulaci&oacute;n, inducci&oacute;n y maduraci&oacute;n de la respuesta inmune. Adem&aacute;s, a&uacute;n faltan por esclarecer las consecuencias de la variabilidad gen&eacute;tica del PRRSV, as&iacute; como la variaci&oacute;n gen&eacute;tica de las diferentes poblaciones de cerdos frente al PRRSV en la respuesta inmune.<sup>39</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La resistencia inicial que se presenta frente al PRRSV depende principalmente de la respuesta antiviral de las c&eacute;lulas infectadas y del sistema inmune innato en los primeros d&iacute;as antes del desarrollo de la respuesta adaptativa. El virus toma ventaja frente al cerdo al evadir en cierto grado la respuesta innata. Primeramente, el PRRSV infecta y se replica en algunas c&eacute;lulas que participan en la respuesta innata, como macr&oacute;fagos y c&eacute;lulas dendr&iacute;ticas, importantes en el desarrollo de una respuesta inmune adecuada tanto innata como adaptativa.<sup>13,14,40</sup> Otra caracter&iacute;stica importante del sistema innato frente a los virus es la producci&oacute;n de IFN tipo I (&#945;/&#946;), el cual induce la s&iacute;ntesis de una gran cantidad de prote&iacute;nas antivirales, como es el caso de la prote&iacute;na cinasa R, 2'&#150;5' oligoadenilato&#150;sintetasa, la adenosina&#150;deaminasa espec&iacute;fica de ARN, y de la prote&iacute;na de mixoma (MxGTPasa), que inhiben la replicaci&oacute;n viral y s&iacute;ntesis de prote&iacute;nas virales.<sup>41</sup> El PRRSV logra inhibir la expresi&oacute;n del IFN tipo I tanto <i>in vivo </i>como <i>in vitro,<sup>42,43</sup> </i>pero la administraci&oacute;n del IFN&#150;&#945; ex&oacute;gena inhibe la replicaci&oacute;n del virus y favorece la respuesta humoral.<sup>44</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En lo que respecta al perfil de citocinas proinfla&#150;matorias, como el IFN&#150;&#945;, TNF&#150;&#945; e IL&#150;1P, que son importantes en el inicio de una respuesta inflamatoria, la infecci&oacute;n por el PRRSV inhibe la expresi&oacute;n de ARNm de estas citocinas.<sup>42&#150;45</sup> En experimentos <i>in vitro </i>utilizando macr&oacute;fagos alveolares estimulados con acetato de forbol mir&iacute;stico (PMA, por su siglas en ingl&eacute;s) e infectados con PRRSV, se observ&oacute; una disminuci&oacute;n en la expresi&oacute;n de ARNm de TNF&#150;&#945;.<sup>44</sup> Mientras que los experimentos <i>in vivo </i>no logran detectar esta citocina (TNF&#150;&#945;) en los fluidos obtenidos de lavados broncoalveolares.<sup>42</sup> Asimismo, se ha observado que el IFN&#150;&#945; es capaz de inhibir la replicaci&oacute;n del PRRSV en cultivos de macr&oacute;fagos alveolares; sin embargo, la expresi&oacute;n de esta citocina en lavados broncoalveolares fue m&iacute;nima.<sup>43,45</sup> Por lo anterior, se entiende que el virus logra, de alguna manera, modular la producci&oacute;n de INF&#150;&#945; en los macr&oacute;fagos para asegurar su replicaci&oacute;n en &eacute;stas y otras c&eacute;lulas. Se ha pensado que esta modulaci&oacute;n puede ser a nivel de transcripci&oacute;n<sup>46</sup> aunque otros estudios tambi&eacute;n sugieren que &eacute;sta se lleva a cabo al inhibir la s&iacute;ntesis de prote&iacute;nas antivirales;<sup>47</sup> sin embargo, es necesario realizar investigaciones para determinar el nivel al que act&uacute;a el PRRSV durante la inhibici&oacute;n del IFN tipo I. Se ha demostrado que al infectar c&eacute;lulas mononucleares con el PRRSV se induce la expresi&oacute;n de IL&#150;10,<sup>48</sup> la cual es una citocina antiinflamatoria que logra inhibir la expresi&oacute;n de la IL&#150;1 y el TNF&#150;&#945;, y adem&aacute;s participa en la diferenciaci&oacute;n de c&eacute;lulas T reguladoras.<sup>49</sup> La falta de una respuesta inflamatoria y la d&eacute;bil o nula respuesta antiviral (inducida por los IFN tipo I) crea un microambiente desfavorable en el desarrollo de la respuesta adaptativa.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La respuesta humoral frente al PRRSV se ha evaluado ampliamente. En suero de cerdos infectados se pueden encontrar anticuerpos IgM anti&#150;PRRSV entre los d&iacute;as cinco y siete posinfecci&oacute;n (PI); sin embargo, despu&eacute;s de dos o tres semanas son indetectables.<sup>50&#150;52 </sup>Posteriormente se detectan anticuerpos IgG entre los d&iacute;as siete y diez PI, con incremento entre la segunda y cuarta semanas.<sup>51,</sup><sup>52</sup> Los niveles de estos anticuerpos son detectables hasta 300 d&iacute;as PI a niveles bajos.<sup>53</sup> Los anticuerpos anti&#150;PRRSV del tipo IgA son detectados a partir de los 14 d&iacute;as PI con m&aacute;ximo a los 25 d&iacute;as hasta que desaparecen al mes, aproximadamente.<sup>51,52</sup> Se ha informado que los AN aparecen a partir de la tercera semana PI;<sup>51,</sup><sup>54</sup> sin embargo, existen estudios que muestran la presencia de AN en la segunda semana PI (d&iacute;a 9).<sup>52</sup> Esta respuesta temprana se presenta en algunos de los cerdos evaluados; sin embargo, a la tercera semana todos los cerdos muestran AN. Estas diferencias en la presencia de AN se debe a la variabilidad en la respuesta de los cerdos al PRRSV; de hecho, en algunos cerdos de otros estudios no es posible detectar niveles significativos de AN durante todo el ensayo.<sup>51,53</sup> Sin embargo, los AN que se producen pueden permanecer durante periodos prolongados pero con t&iacute;tulos bajos.<sup>51,</sup> <sup>52</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los primeros anticuerpos anti&#150;PRRSV se dirigen contra la prote&iacute;na N durante la primera semana PI.<sup>51,53 </sup>Recientemente se ha informado de evidencias de anticuerpos dirigidos contra varios ep&iacute;topes lineares (formados por residuos de amino&aacute;cidos consecutivos incluidos en un mismo fragmento pept&iacute;dico) y de conformaci&oacute;n (constituidos por amino&aacute;cidos que, aunque est&aacute;n alejados en la secuencia primaria de la prote&iacute;na, se aproximan cuando &eacute;sta se pliega para formar su estructura tridimensional) de la prote&iacute;na nsp2 en la primera semana PI, y la respuesta fue m&aacute;s fuerte que la dirigida a la prote&iacute;na N.<sup>55&#150;58</sup> Los anticuerpos contra la prote&iacute;na N en las primeras semanas PI no tienen un efecto neutralizante. Estos anticuerpos se han relacionado con la diseminaci&oacute;n del PRRSV en macr&oacute;fagos, a trav&eacute;s de un fen&oacute;meno conocido como incremento de la infecci&oacute;n dependiente de anticuerpos (<i>Antibody Dependent Enhancement, </i>ADE, por sus siglas en ingl&eacute;s).<sup>59</sup> A pesar de que existen anticuerpos no neutralizantes contra la GP5, tambi&eacute;n se pueden encontrar AN, &eacute;stos son los que se han relacionado principalmente con la neutralizaci&oacute;n del virus para ambos genotipos. Estos AN pueden ser detectados en algunos casos de manera temprana a partir del d&iacute;a 9 PI; sin embargo, generalmente se presentan a partir del d&iacute;a 28 PI.<sup>52</sup> Tambi&eacute;n se han detectado AN contra GP4, prote&iacute;na M y en menor grado contra GP3.<sup>27,51,52,59</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La participaci&oacute;n de los AN en la protecci&oacute;n contra el PRRSV se ha evaluado ampliamente, y existe cierta controversia respecto de su participaci&oacute;n en la protecci&oacute;n contra el PRRSV. Hay grupos que describen que &eacute;stos no participan en el control del virus, debido a que en cerdos que presentan un t&iacute;tulo elevado de AN fue posible aislar el virus de sangre. En el caso contrario, con un t&iacute;tulo indetectable de AN se logr&oacute; resolver la viremia.<sup>60</sup> Sin embargo, otros grupos han demostrado que la transferencia pasiva de AN a cerdas gestantes infectadas con PRRSV es capaz de bloquear la infecci&oacute;n trasplacentaria.<sup>61</sup> En otras palabras, los AN no son necesarios para la resoluci&oacute;n de la viremia, son importantes para evitar la infecci&oacute;n.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La respuesta celular se puede evaluar mediante la producci&oacute;n de IFN&#150;&#947; o c&eacute;lulas productoras de IFN&#150;&#947;. En la respuesta celular inducida por el PRRSV se han evaluado ambos aspectos.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La respuesta de c&eacute;lulas T espec&iacute;ficas contra el PRRSV, analizadas mediante la proliferaci&oacute;n de c&eacute;lulas mononucleares, aparece en la cuarta semana PI con un m&aacute;ximo a la semana siete y un declive entre las semanas 9 y 11.<sup>62</sup> Sin embargo, otros estudios muestran que esta respuesta se detecta de manera d&eacute;bil a moderada a partir de la segunda semana PI, y se incrementa en la semana cuatro PI.<sup>63</sup> Estas diferencias pueden deberse a la cepa del virus utilizada o a la variabilidad en la respuesta de los cerdos, que permiti&oacute; clasificar la respuesta en tres niveles: bajo, intermedio y alto. En ambos casos, el fenotipo de c&eacute;lulas T secretoras de IFN&#150;&#947; en respuesta al PRRSV parece consistir de linfocitos CD4+CD8+ de memoria y CD4+ cooperadoras.<sup>64,65</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La expresi&oacute;n de IFN&#150;&#947; se evalu&oacute; a nivel de transcritos en c&eacute;lulas de ganglios linf&aacute;ticos, pulm&oacute;n y sangre perif&eacute;rica de cerdos infectados con PRRSV. En todos los casos hubo expresi&oacute;n significativa de ARNm del IFN&#150;&#947;; sin embargo, el IFN&#150;&#947; producido no es suficiente o no es efectivo en la eliminaci&oacute;n del virus debido a que tambi&eacute;n fue posible detectarlo en estos ganglios y tejidos.<sup>66</sup> Al analizar las c&eacute;lulas productoras de IFN&#150;&#947; espec&iacute;ficas contra PRRSV (a trav&eacute;s de ensayos de ELIspot) en sangre de cerdos infectados, se observ&oacute; un n&uacute;mero bajo de c&eacute;lulas productoras espec&iacute;ficas, entre 50&#150;100 c&eacute;lulas por cada 1 &times; 10<sup>6</sup> c&eacute;lulas en la primera semana PI; s&oacute;lo fue posible detectar un n&uacute;mero mayor de c&eacute;lulas durante una reinfecci&oacute;n (400 por cada 1 &times; 10<sup>6</sup>).<sup>67</sup> Sin embargo, otros grupos de trabajo, como el de Ronald <i>et al., </i>observaron una producci&oacute;n significativa de IFN&#150;&#947; en suero a las dos semanas PI. Ellos atribuyen esta producci&oacute;n temprana de IFN&#150;&#947; a varios factores, entre ellos a la activaci&oacute;n de c&eacute;lulas NK (las cuales hasta el momento no han sido evaluadas en la infecci&oacute;n con PRRSV), a la cepa utilizada y a una activaci&oacute;n policlonal de linfocitos, lo cual llevar&iacute;a a una reducci&oacute;n en la disponibilidad de c&eacute;lulas capaces de responder.<sup>68</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El papel de la inmunidad mediada por c&eacute;lulas en la eliminaci&oacute;n del PRRSV no est&aacute; totalmente definida; sin embargo, es importante en la eliminaci&oacute;n completa del virus, pues la respuesta humoral sola no es capaz de eliminar a este &uacute;ltimo.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b><i>Vacunas contra el PRRSV</i></b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>C&oacute;mo funcionan las vacunas: fundamentos b&aacute;sicos para una vacuna ideal</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Por definici&oacute;n, las vacunas son productos formados con un microorganismo completo, atenuado o muerto, o fracciones de &eacute;l, capaces de inducir una respuesta inmune protectora y duradera a dicho microorganismo. Su funci&oacute;n es prevenir y controlar futuras infecciones.<sup>69 </sup>Para lograrlo, deben desencadenar una respuesta inmune protectora y adem&aacute;s ser inocuas, es decir, incapaces de desencadenar una reacci&oacute;n adversa.<sup>69,70 </sup>Para que las vacunas puedan prevenir o controlar una enfermedad, tienen que estimular eficazmente el sistema inmunitario e inducir una memoria inmunol&oacute;gica.<sup>70</sup> Se puede hacer una clasificaci&oacute;n de las vacunas teniendo en cuenta la tecnolog&iacute;a empleada en su dise&ntilde;o y producci&oacute;n.<sup>69</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Las vacunas cl&aacute;sicas pueden ser vacunas inactivadas, vacunas atenuadas o vacunas de subunidades. Las primeras est&aacute;n compuestas por microorganismos completos o inactivados por medios f&iacute;sicos y qu&iacute;micos. Las vacunas atenuadas est&aacute;n formadas por microorganismos cuya virulencia se ha reducido utilizando diversos m&eacute;todos como pases sucesivos en medios de cultivo, por m&eacute;todos qu&iacute;micos, recombinaci&oacute;n, etc. Las vacunas de subunidades contienen un preparado de fracciones antig&eacute;nicas, ya sean lipopolisac&aacute;ridos, prote&iacute;nas purificadas o sintetizadas, extractos ribos&oacute;micos, etc. Este tipo de vacunas se emplea cuando se conocen los componentes responsables de la patogenicidad de un microorganismo.<sup>69</sup> Los avances en biolog&iacute;a molecular han permitido el desarrollo de nuevas vacunas que utilizan la manipulaci&oacute;n gen&eacute;tica, p&eacute;ptidos sint&eacute;ticos, vacunas antiidiotipo (anticuerpos que reproducen la morfolog&iacute;a de un ant&iacute;geno).<sup>71</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>Vacunas atenuadas contra el PRRSV</i></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La vacuna m&aacute;s utilizada contra el PRRSV utiliza virus vivo modificado (MLV, por sus siglas en ingl&eacute;s), atenuado por pasaje m&uacute;ltiple en cultivo celular. En el caso del PRRSV, las vacunas atenuadas son m&aacute;s eficientes que las inactivadas debido a que inducen mayor respuesta celular y humoral; sin embargo, esta respuesta es insuficiente para proteger completamente contra la infecci&oacute;n frente a virus heter&oacute;logos.<sup>72,73</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La vacunaci&oacute;n de cerdos utilizando vacuna atenuada de tipo americano o europeo estimula la respuesta celular.<sup>65,73,74</sup> Sin embargo, la proporci&oacute;n de c&eacute;lulas productoras de IFN&#150;&#947; es muy baja (especialmente en cepas europeas) y su desarrollo muy lento si se compara con otras vacunas atenuadas como la del virus de Aujeszky, en la que la producci&oacute;n de c&eacute;lulas productoras de IFN&#150;&#947; es de dos a cuatro veces mayor despu&eacute;s de la vacunaci&oacute;n.<sup>65,73,74</sup> Por lo anterior, se afirma que la vacunaci&oacute;n utilizando virus atenuados no es del todo eficiente, pues la respuesta celular medida por c&eacute;lulas productoras de IFN&#150;&#947; tiene una evoluci&oacute;n a partir del d&iacute;a 28 hasta el 42, en una proporci&oacute;n moderada pero significativa.<sup>74</sup> En lo que respecta a la respuesta humoral que induce la vacuna de virus atenuado, los anticuerpos no neutralizantes aparecen en etapas tempranas de la infecci&oacute;n y permanecen hasta por 96 semanas PI.<sup>75</sup> Los AN s&oacute;lo aparecen en algunos animales vacunados;<sup>65</sup> sin embargo, algunos autores detectaron AN despu&eacute;s de desafiar a cerdos vacunados.<sup>76</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">A pesar de lo anterior, varios experimentos han demostrado que el uso de la vacuna MLV reduce significativamente las lesiones y signos cl&iacute;nicos frente al desaf&iacute;o con cepas hom&oacute;logas de PRRSV. Adem&aacute;s, muestra una reducci&oacute;n en la proporci&oacute;n de cerdos infectados en forma persistente y en el tiempo de excreci&oacute;n viral utilizando cepas hom&oacute;logas del virus vacunal.<sup>72,77</sup> Sin embargo, es claro que la vacuna no previene la reinfecci&oacute;n con cepas hom&oacute;logas, s&oacute;lo disminuye los signos de la enfermedad. Frente a cepas heter&oacute;logas, se presenta el mismo escenario pero la protecci&oacute;n es menor. Un problema importante relacionado con la seguridad de esta vacuna es el hecho de que en algunos casos, los virus atenuados pueden revertirse a virulencia y ocasionar la propagaci&oacute;n del virus en la poblaci&oacute;n porcina.<sup>37</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>Vacunas inactivadas</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La principal ventaja de las vacunas inactivadas es la debilidad de la mayor&iacute;a de vacunas atenuadas, una de ellas es que no pueden revertir a la virulencia, pues utilizan virus muerto. Despu&eacute;s de la vacunaci&oacute;n no es posible, en ning&uacute;n momento, detectar ARN viral en muestras de sangre o tejidos.<sup>78</sup> Algunos autores han logrado cierto grado de protecci&oacute;n en campo.<sup>79,80 </sup>Sin embargo, estudios m&aacute;s recientes que utilizan t&eacute;cnicas m&aacute;s precisas han obtenido respuesta nula frente al PRRSV. Nilubol <i>et al. </i><sup>78</sup> y Zuckermann <i>et al.,</i><sup>74 </sup>en cepas americanas y europeas, respectivamente, no encontraron incremento significativo en c&eacute;lulas productoras de IFN&#150;y contra PRRSV, incluso despu&eacute;s de desafiar a cerdos vacunados.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Las vacunas inactivadas de cepas americanas no son capaces de inducir una respuesta humoral; es decir, no son capaces de estimular la producci&oacute;n de AN.<sup>65</sup> Aun cuando se observa un aumento de anticuerpos despu&eacute;s del desaf&iacute;o, &eacute;stos no neutralizan.<sup>78</sup> Sin embargo, las vacunas inactivadas de cepas europeas inducen una ligera producci&oacute;n de AN, aunque esto &uacute;ltimo no se refleja ni en la disminuci&oacute;n de la viremia ni en la carga viral en tejidos.<sup>74</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>Alternativas de vacunas en campo</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Las vacunas comerciales se han utilizado en gran n&uacute;mero de granjas con resultados controversiales, lo cual puede deberse a la poca homolog&iacute;a entre cepas (vacunal y de la granja), pues la protecci&oacute;n cruzada es limitada.<sup>81</sup> Ante este escenario se han instrumentado estrategias de control en las granjas, que se basan en el uso de sueros vir&eacute;micos durante la aclimataci&oacute;n de las cerdas, en el pie de cr&iacute;a o en el simple contacto de animales enfermos con los animales que se pretende inmunizar.<sup>82&#150;84</sup> Shibata <i>et </i>al.<sup>85 </sup>mostraron que la exposici&oacute;n al virus de campo que circulaba en la granja, preven&iacute;a los signos cl&iacute;nicos de la enfermedad y observ&oacute; disminuci&oacute;n en los t&iacute;tulos de infecci&oacute;n, as&iacute; como su duraci&oacute;n al integrar estos animales inmunizados con el resto.<sup>84,86</sup> Esta estrategia se sigue utilizando y ayuda a controlar la diseminaci&oacute;n de reinfecci&oacute;n en la granja. Sin embargo, este m&eacute;todo de exposici&oacute;n conlleva algunos riesgos; por ejemplo, el suero utilizado para la aclimataci&oacute;n puede contener alg&uacute;n otro pat&oacute;geno, por lo que el lugar donde se lleva a cabo la aclimataci&oacute;n debe estar lo suficientemente lejos para prevenir reinfecciones en la granja o la introducci&oacute;n de nuevas cepas.<sup>86</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>Mejoras a las vacunas convencionales</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En la mayor&iacute;a de los casos la protecci&oacute;n conferida por las vacunas convencionales no es eficaz en la prevenci&oacute;n de la infecci&oacute;n. Por esta raz&oacute;n se han desarrollado nuevas alternativas para mejorar la respuesta inducida por las vacunas. B&aacute;sicamente se ha buscado aumentar la respuesta celular, la producci&oacute;n de AN y, adem&aacute;s, fomentar la respuesta entre las cepas heter&oacute;logas. Una de las estrategias utilizadas para mejorar las vacunas convencionales consiste en la administraci&oacute;n de citocinas recombinantes como adyuvantes.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Se han utilizado citocinas que son importantes en el desarrollo de la respuesta celular, es el caso de la interleucina&#150;12 (IL&#150;12) y el IFN&#150;&#945;.<sup>87</sup> La IL&#150;12 induce la diferenciaci&oacute;n de los linfocitos T v&iacute;rgenes a linfocitos Th1 y se ha comprobado que el IFN&#150;&#945; induce un estado antiviral en las c&eacute;lulas. Cuando se utiliza la IL&#150;12 como adyuvante existe un aumento significativo en las c&eacute;lulas productoras de IFN&#150;&#947;; sin embargo, el desarrollo de AN es nulo.<sup>73,76</sup> Al evaluar el IFN&#150;&#945;, se observ&oacute; que su comportamiento fue similar al de IL&#150;12, ya que induce s&oacute;lo aumento de la respuesta celular; sin embargo, &eacute;ste fue temporal.<sup>65,73,76</sup> En ambos casos el aumento de IFN&#150;&#947;  no se refleja en disminuci&oacute;n de la viremia o en la sintomatolog&iacute;a.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Foss <i>et </i>al.<sup>88</sup> probaron la IL&#150;1, IL&#150;6 y la toxina del c&oacute;lera como adyuvantes, debido a que son agentes de inducci&oacute;n de la respuesta inflamatoria en cerdos e importantes en la presentaci&oacute;n de ant&iacute;genos; sin embargo, s&oacute;lo la toxina del c&oacute;lera result&oacute; buen adyuvante. La toxina del c&oacute;lera indujo la producci&oacute;n de AN espec&iacute;ficos contra ORF5, pero no estimul&oacute; la respuesta celular. Otra estrategia utilizada son los oligodeoxinucle&oacute;tidos, &eacute;stos son pol&iacute;meros sint&eacute;ticos con secuencias ricas en los nucle&oacute;tidos citocina y guanidina, que se utilizan como inmunoestimuladores.<sup>89,90</sup> Este adyuvante indujo la producci&oacute;n de AN, as&iacute; como ligero aumento en las c&eacute;lulas producto de IFN&#150;&#947;. Incluso, se observ&oacute; reducci&oacute;n en algunos de los signos de la enfermedad, como insuficiencia respiratoria.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Se han llevado a cabo varios intentos para evaluar la respuesta entre cepas heter&oacute;logas para disminuir el efecto debido a la gran variabilidad gen&eacute;tica del PRRSV. Se han utilizado la combinaci&oacute;n de vacunas atenuadas e inactivadas. Sin embargo, no se obtuvieron resultados satisfactorios pues hubo disminuci&oacute;n de las c&eacute;lulas T efectoras y supresi&oacute;n de la respuesta humoral.<sup>91</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Charerntantanakul <i>et al.</i><sup>76</sup> utilizaron vacunas atenuadas y evaluaron la respuesta inmune a p&eacute;ptidos de ORF5 de varias cepas, por la importancia de la GP5 en la inducci&oacute;n de AN. Sin embargo, esta adici&oacute;n no indujo mejor&iacute;a cl&iacute;nica, aument&oacute; ligeramente la respuesta celular sin incrementar la producci&oacute;n de anticuerpos. A pesar de todas las instrumentaciones de vacunas atenuadas o muertas, no se ha encontrado un adyuvante o estrategia adecuada para promover la prevenci&oacute;n de la infecci&oacute;n por el PRRSV; por tanto, es necesaria una nueva generaci&oacute;n de vacunas con mayor seguridad y eficacia protectora para controlar el PRRS.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b><i>Vacunas de nueva generaci&oacute;n: una alternativa para PRRSV</i></b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Se han evaluado varios sistemas de expresi&oacute;n de ant&iacute;genos de PRRSV incluyendo bacterias,<sup>62,92,93 </sup>bacoluvirus,<sup>94</sup> vacunas de ADN,<sup>95,96</sup> adenovirus<sup>97,98</sup> y el sistema del virus de Ankara (MVA, por sus siglas en ingl&eacute;s)<sup>99</sup> en busca de una alternativa para mejorar la respuesta inmune contra el PRRSV o para utilizarse como vacunas. Se han utilizado bacterias como <i>Salmonella typhymurium </i>y el bacilo de calmette&#150;Gu&eacute;rin (BCG) de <i>Mycobacterium bovis </i>como vectores en la expresi&oacute;n de la GP5 y la prote&iacute;na M del PRRSV, utilizando ratones como modelo de estudio.<sup>93,100</sup> En el caso donde se utiliza el BCG, s&oacute;lo se logr&oacute; la expresi&oacute;n de GP5 despu&eacute;s de remover los primeros 30 residuos hidrof&oacute;bicos de la glicoprote&iacute;na. La GP5 y la prote&iacute;na M se expresaron en la membrana de <i>Mycobacterium </i>y se detectaron anticuerpos anti&#150;GP5 y prote&iacute;na M, tambi&eacute;n se detectaron c&eacute;lulas productoras de IFN&#150;&#947; espec&iacute;ficas del PRRSV en esplenocitos. Sin embargo, la respuesta en cerdos podr&iacute;a variar.<sup>101</sup> Cuando se utiliz&oacute; una cepa atenuada de <i>S. typhymurium </i>para evaluar la respuesta a la GP5 del PRRSV, se utiliz&oacute; un pl&aacute;smido que codificaba a la GP5, contenido en cepas de <i>S. typhimurium. </i>Sin embargo, en este caso la utilizaci&oacute;n de <i>S. typhimurium </i>como vector de expresi&oacute;n no marc&oacute; ninguna diferencia respecto a la utilizaci&oacute;n de ADN desnudo (pl&aacute;smido que contiene la regi&oacute;n que codifica a la GP5), resultando en ambos casos en una respuesta humoral y celular pr&aacute;cticamente nulas.<sup>100</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Tambi&eacute;n se ha evaluado el uso de virus como vectores de expresi&oacute;n para las prote&iacute;nas GP5 y M del PRRSV en cerdos. Al virus de la seudorrabia (PRV, por sus siglas en ingl&eacute;s, causante de la enfermedad de Aujeszky) como vector de expresi&oacute;n, se le insert&oacute; la secuencia de la GP5 en el PRV y se obtuvo una vacuna doble dirigida al virus de Aujeszky y GP5&#150;PRRSV. Esta vacuna redujo los da&ntilde;os causados por el virus en pulm&oacute;n en cerdos infectados; sin embargo, no se detectaron niveles de AN.<sup>102,103</sup> En contraste con estos resultados, cuando se utiliz&oacute; el baculovirus (expresando el heterod&iacute;mero GP5&#150;M) en un modelo murino, se detect&oacute; un t&iacute;tulo alto de AN anti&#150;GP5 y c&eacute;lulas productoras de IFN&#150;&#947;. Sin embargo, la producci&oacute;n de IFN&#150;&#947; no fue espec&iacute;fica del PRRSV pues el baculovirus que no conten&iacute;a el heterod&iacute;mero GP5&#150;M usado como testigo, indujo un nivel de c&eacute;lulas productoras de IFN&#150;&#947; similar.<sup>104</sup> El virus de la viruela aviar tambi&eacute;n se ha utilizado como vector de expresi&oacute;n para PRRSV dirigido al heterod&iacute;mero GP3/GP5 e incluyendo como adyuvante la IL&#150;18 porcina en el pl&aacute;smido.<sup>105</sup> El potencial del virus de la viruela aviar como vacuna para PRRSV ofrece resultados alentadores.<sup>106</sup> Utilizando este modelo en cerdos se observ&oacute; una reducci&oacute;n de la carga viral en pulmones y algunos ganglios, se detectaron t&iacute;tulos bajos de AN durante las primeras semanas PI, que aumentaron de manera significativa a los 56 d&iacute;as PI. Tambi&eacute;n se observ&oacute; aumento de linfocitos CD4<sup>+</sup> y CD8<sup>+</sup>, y a pesar de encontrarse un gran n&uacute;mero de c&eacute;lulas productoras de IFN&#150;&#947; se cuantific&oacute; un aumento de IFN&#150;&#947; por ELISA en suero.<sup>105</sup> Adem&aacute;s del virus de la viruela aviar se utiliz&oacute; un virus recombinante de viruela modificado, conocido como virus de Ankara, el cual es un excelente sistema de expresi&oacute;n como vacuna.<sup>99</sup> En este caso se expres&oacute; el heterod&iacute;mero GP5/prote&iacute;na M en modelo murino. Se obtuvieron AN a partir de la tercera semana posinoculaci&oacute;n, pero con un t&iacute;tulo muy bajo, en la s&eacute;ptima semana posinoculaci&oacute;n aument&oacute; el t&iacute;tulo de AN. Este sistema indujo en los ratones ligera y tard&iacute;a producci&oacute;n de IFN&#150;&#947;, que se detect&oacute; a partir del d&iacute;a 30 posinoculaci&oacute;n y se mantuvo hasta el d&iacute;a 90.<sup>99</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los adenovirus (Ad5) son excelentes sistemas para la expresi&oacute;n de genes de inter&eacute;s en el desarrollo de vacunas.<sup>107</sup> Por ello tambi&eacute;n se han utilizado en el dise&ntilde;o de vacunas contra el PRRSV. Algunas de las construcciones que se han evaluado incluyen el Ad5 expresando GP5, la prote&iacute;na M y su combinaci&oacute;n (GP5&#150;M). El constructo que expresaba el heterod&iacute;mero GP5&#150;M indujo un t&iacute;tulo mayor de AN y mayor proliferaci&oacute;n de linfocitos espec&iacute;ficos anti&#150;PRRSV.<sup>98</sup> Posteriormente se probaron otros constructos evaluando las combinaciones de las GP que inducen la producci&oacute;n de AN, GP3&#150;GP5, GP4&#150;GP5 y GP3&#150;GP4&#150;GP5.<sup>108</sup> En el desarrollo de AN, la GP5 fue un com&uacute;n denominador al igual que en la mayor&iacute;a de las construcciones que no son de Ad5, debido a su importancia inmunog&eacute;nica. Se observaron AN contra todos los constructos; sin embargo, no fue posible determinar hacia qu&eacute; GP eran dirigidos, debido a la falta de prote&iacute;nas recombinantes de su especificidad (GP3, GP4 y GP5). Estos anticuerpos fueron detectados a partir de los 14 d&iacute;as PI, al igual que la proliferaci&oacute;n de linfocitos PRRSV espec&iacute;ficos para todos los constructos.<sup>108</sup> Una de las ventajas del sistema de Ad5 sobre los otros sistemas utilizados consiste en que la expresi&oacute;n se lleva a cabo en c&eacute;lulas eucari&oacute;ticas, lo cual hace que la conformaci&oacute;n de la prote&iacute;na sea similar a la del virus, facilitando la exposici&oacute;n de los ep&iacute;topes neutralizantes. Sin embargo, para el caso de la GP5 el ep&iacute;tope "natural" pudiera no estar expuesto, debido a que el viri&oacute;n forma un heterod&iacute;mero con la prote&iacute;na M. Esta respuesta se observa si se compara la de los Ad5 que expresan GP3 y GP4, cuando se coadministra el constructo con la GP5 y no hay ning&uacute;n aumento en esta respuesta.<sup>108</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Adem&aacute;s de los vectores usados para la expresi&oacute;n de las prote&iacute;nas del PRRSV, recientemente se han utilizado las vacunas de ADN. Lo que distingue a estas vacunas de otras es la expresi&oacute;n de su naturaleza f&iacute;sica.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Las vacunas de ADN est&aacute;n compuestas de un pl&aacute;smido de ADN que codifica para alguna prote&iacute;na o fracci&oacute;n de inter&eacute;s y no son infecciosas.<sup>109</sup> Las vacunas de ADN tienen algunas caracter&iacute;sticas que les confieren ciertas ventajas frente a las convencionales, entre ellas la facilidad de producci&oacute;n, bajo costo, estables al calor, etc.<sup>110</sup> Las vacunas de ADN han demostrado inducir anticuerpos s&eacute;ricos y una fuerte respuesta de c&eacute;lulas T cooperadoras y citot&oacute;xicas contra varios ant&iacute;genos: virus, bacterias, par&aacute;sitos y algunos tumores.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En vacunas de ADN contra el PRRSV se han evaluado todos los ORF del PRRSV en distintos pl&aacute;smidos.<sup>95,96,111,112</sup> Barfoed <i>et al.</i><sup>112</sup> caracterizaron la contribuci&oacute;n de cada prote&iacute;na viral en el desarrollo de una respuesta protectora. S&oacute;lo se encontr&oacute; una respuesta de anticuerpos en los cerdos vacunados con el pl&aacute;smido que conten&iacute;a el ORF7 despu&eacute;s del desaf&iacute;o con una cepa hom&oacute;loga del PRRSV; sin embargo, esta es la prote&iacute;na m&aacute;s inmunog&eacute;nica del virus y contra la cual se crean anticuerpos en la etapa inicial de la infecci&oacute;n.<sup>53</sup> Tambi&eacute;n se observaron anticuerpos dirigidos a Nsp2 y GP4 tras la inoculaci&oacute;n; sin embargo, despu&eacute;s de retar a los cerdos con una cepa del PRRSV no se observ&oacute; ninguna respuesta espec&iacute;fica.<sup>112</sup> Una de las razones probables para la falta de respuesta ante la vacunaci&oacute;n con GP2, GP3, GP5 y GP6, pudo ser la estrategia de inoculaci&oacute;n (pistola de genes y el pl&aacute;smido cubierto de part&iacute;culas de oro), adem&aacute;s en ning&uacute;n momento se evalu&oacute; la expresi&oacute;n de las prote&iacute;nas virales en el cerdo.<sup>112</sup> Estos resultados coinciden con los de otros autores para el caso de la prote&iacute;na N (pl&aacute;smido con ORF7); sin embargo, ellos s&iacute; encontraron respuesta en la sueroneutralizaci&oacute;n para la GP5 y GP6.<sup>95</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Debido a que los AN van dirigidos en su mayor&iacute;a a la GP5, se han probado vacunas de ADN contra la GP5 del virus; pero &eacute;stas no producen AN, lo que confirma la importancia de la conformaci&oacute;n de esta prote&iacute;na.<sup>111 </sup>Lo anterior se ha comprobado al desarrollar nuevas vacunas mediante el uso de vectores, como el adenovirus, que expresan la GP5 y desarrollan AN, aunque su desarrollo es d&eacute;bil y lento.<sup>97,113</sup> Adem&aacute;s de estos resultados, se demostr&oacute; que la GP5 formaba d&iacute;meros con la prote&iacute;na M en las part&iacute;culas virales,<sup>32 </sup>por lo que se han dirigido algunas investigaciones al desarrollo de vacunas de ADN que expresan este heterod&iacute;mero (GP5&#150;prote&iacute;na M).<sup>96,99,114,115</sup> Los resultados obtenidos con estas vacunas muestran que existe mayor producci&oacute;n de AN que cuando se utiliza la GP5 o la prote&iacute;na M individualmente. El uso de este heterod&iacute;mero desarrolla una respuesta similar a la descrita antes con el uso del baculovirus, seudorrabia, adenovirus, etc., que consiste en la producci&oacute;n de AN, la cual se desarrolla de manera lenta y d&eacute;bil a partir de la sexta semana.<sup>95,97,101,116</sup> Por otra parte, la respuesta de c&eacute;lulas T espec&iacute;ficas es alta, pero se desarrolla entre la sexta y octava semanas PI.<sup>114</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La GP5 de la cepa americana contiene dos ep&iacute;topes en el extremo N terminal que producen anticuerpos; sin embargo, s&oacute;lo uno de ellos es neutralizante, mientras que el otro funciona como se&ntilde;uelo que provoca la reducci&oacute;n de AN, lo cual se observa en la respuesta a la infecci&oacute;n por PRRSV nativa y en vacunas. Fang <i>et al.</i><sup>117</sup> determinaron si el efecto del ep&iacute;tope se&ntilde;uelo puede ser reducido o eliminado, con este prop&oacute;sito se insert&oacute;, entre el ep&iacute;tope neutralizante y el se&ntilde;uelo, una secuencia de amino&aacute;cidos conocida como PADRE <i>(Pan DR helper T cell epitope). </i>&Eacute;sta consta de los amino&aacute;cidos: AKFVAAWTLKAA,<sup>118</sup> y favorece la respuesta de AN y producci&oacute;n de IFN&#150;&#947;.<sup>119&#150;121</sup> Los resultados de Fang <i>et al.</i><sup>117</sup> muestran que en ratones, la producci&oacute;n de AN es mayor y m&aacute;s r&aacute;pida con la vacuna de ADN, en donde la secuencia de la GP5 contiene la secuencia PADRE, comparada con la que tiene la GP5 sin modificaciones. Sin embargo, estos resultados pueden deberse a la funci&oacute;n de la secuencia PADRE como adyuvante y no por la interrupci&oacute;n del ep&iacute;tope se&ntilde;uelo en la secuencia de la GP5.<sup>117</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Para mejorar la respuesta de las vacunas de ADN tambi&eacute;n se ha estudiado la administraci&oacute;n de citocinas. Se ha utilizado IL&#150;2 e IFN&#150;y por su importancia en la proliferaci&oacute;n celular y la actividad de los linfocitos. Xue <i>et </i>al.<sup>122</sup> encontraron que la administraci&oacute;n de estas citocinas como adyuvantes en vacunas de ADN que codifican para ORF5 y ORF7, protegen al cerdo de las lesiones pulmonares caracter&iacute;sticas de PRRSV. Tambi&eacute;n se observ&oacute; reducci&oacute;n en cierto grado de la replicaci&oacute;n del virus. Sin embargo, estos resultados son parciales debido a que el efecto protector fue s&oacute;lo en 33% de los animales cuando se utiliz&oacute; la IL&#150;2 y en 66% de los animales con el IFN&#150;&#947;. Rompato <i>et al.</i><sup>123 </sup>estudiaron el efecto de la IL&#150;2 e IL&#150;4 en el desarrollo de la respuesta inmune inducida por una vacuna de ADN que codifica ORF7, utilizando el vector de expresi&oacute;n phCMV. Los resultados demuestran que la IL&#150;2 induce una respuesta celular espec&iacute;fica, mientras que IL&#150;4 parece tener un efecto supresor en este tipo de respuestas. Estos datos tambi&eacute;n sugieren que ORF7 puede participar en la reducci&oacute;n de la carga viral de los animales infectados con PRRSV, esto &uacute;ltimo coincide con otros autores.<sup>122</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Una alternativa para mejorar las vacunas de ADN contra PRRSV es el procesamiento y presentaci&oacute;n de ant&iacute;genos a trav&eacute;s de la conjugaci&oacute;n de la ubiquitina con la GP5 en un pl&aacute;smido. En este caso la prote&iacute;na expresada junto a la ubiquitina se dirigi&oacute; al proteosoma para ser degradada, con lo que se favorece el procesamiento y la presentaci&oacute;n, pues los ant&iacute;genos degradados por esta v&iacute;a facilitan su presentaci&oacute;n v&iacute;a MHC I, y permiten la repuesta celular. Hou <i>et al.</i><sup>124</sup> determinaron la respuesta inmune de cerdos vacunados con un pl&aacute;smido que expresaba la GP5 conjugada a la ubiquitina porcina. Se observ&oacute; aumento en la expresi&oacute;n IFN&#150;&#947;, disminuci&oacute;n de la carga viral en sangre despu&eacute;s del desaf&iacute;o de cerdos y disminuci&oacute;n en el n&uacute;mero y severidad de lesiones en pulm&oacute;n de los cerdos desafiados, respecto de los testigos (vacuna sin la conjugaci&oacute;n a ubiquitina y el del pl&aacute;smido libre de GP5 y ubiquitina). Sin embargo, la respuesta de anticuerpos fue nula, probablemente debido a la r&aacute;pida degradaci&oacute;n intracelular de la prote&iacute;na ubiquitina&#150;GP5, sin dejar un nivel de prote&iacute;na suficiente para la interacci&oacute;n con linfocitos B.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Recientemente surgi&oacute; una nueva estrategia en el desarrollo de vacunas, basada en la manipulaci&oacute;n del genoma viral para introducir modificaciones espec&iacute;ficas para crear virus mutantes gen&eacute;ticamente modificados: clonas infecciosas. El desarrollo de &eacute;stas se describe como la formaci&oacute;n de ADN complementario a partir del virus, bajo el control de un promotor.<sup>125</sup> La importancia de las clonas infecciosas en el desarrollo de una vacuna contra el PRRSV radica en el hecho de dirigir cambios espec&iacute;ficos en el PRRSV y con ello determinar la participaci&oacute;n de alguna prote&iacute;na o de alg&uacute;n amino&aacute;cido espec&iacute;ficos en la infecci&oacute;n, uni&oacute;n a receptores, etc. Actualmente se cuenta con clonas infecciosas de prototipo americano y europeo. Se han evaluado modificaciones puntuales en los sitios necesarios para formar el heterod&iacute;mero GP5&#150;prote&iacute;na M, se encontr&oacute; que la ciste&iacute;na 23 de la prote&iacute;na N es indispensable para formar un homod&iacute;mero, el cual est&aacute; estrechamente ligado a la infectividad del PRRSV, mutaciones en el ep&iacute;tope neutralizante de GP5, produciendo cepas sin capacidad de infecci&oacute;n.<sup>125 </sup>Adem&aacute;s, con esta tecnolog&iacute;a se han desarrollado virus quim&eacute;ricos que ampl&iacute;an el conocimiento de los factores importantes para la virulencia, atenuaci&oacute;n, patogenicidad e inmunogenicidad. Wang <i>et al.</i><sup>126</sup> utilizaron una cepa altamente pat&oacute;gena del PRRSV (aislado MN184) y un virus vacunal (a base de virus vivo modificado), para desarrollar virus quim&eacute;ricos. Uno de &eacute;stos conten&iacute;a ORF1a y 1b de la cepa vacunal y las prote&iacute;nas estructurales de la cepa pat&oacute;gena y viceversa. Se utilizaron estos virus quim&eacute;ricos como vacunas y despu&eacute;s del reto con PRRSV, disminuyeron las lesiones en los pulmones, el desarrollo de los AN present&oacute; un incremento m&aacute;s oportuno y ligeramente mayor que en las cepas originales.<sup>126</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Conclusiones</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La aparici&oacute;n del PRRSV trajo consigo un gran problema para la industria porcina debido a las cuantiosas p&eacute;rdidas econ&oacute;micas que causa. Como consecuencia de lo anterior se ha trabajado en el desarrollo de vacunas y estrategias de control del virus en el campo. Actualmente se comercializan dos vacunas que involucran virus atenuado e inactivado. Aunque estas vacunas han sido ampliamente utilizadas en el campo, los estudios realizados analizando la respuesta inmune, muestran que &eacute;stas son ineficientes para prevenir la infecci&oacute;n. Sin embargo, en algunas granjas han tenido buenos resultados en el control de la enfermedad; no obstante la vacuna comercial de virus vivo modificado PRRSV al utilizarse en granjas ha introducido nuevas cepas de virus. Tal fue el caso en Dinamarca, en 1996, pues el virus al estar s&oacute;lo atenuado puede provocar infecci&oacute;n en los cerdos. La falta de control del PRRSV en la mayor&iacute;a de las granjas infectadas ha provocado que se desarrollen estrategias alternas para el control de la enfermedad. Sin embargo, estas estrategias, aun cuando ayudan en el control de la enfermedad no resuelven el problema de ra&iacute;z. Por ello se crearon nuevos prototipos de vacunas que incluyen vacunas de ADN, diferentes sistemas de expresi&oacute;n de ant&iacute;genos de PRRSV, desarrollo de clonas infecciosas, etc. Todas estas estrategias han contribuido al conocimiento de distintos ant&iacute;genos que inducen un t&iacute;tulo alto de AN, as&iacute; como un n&uacute;mero significativo de c&eacute;lulas productoras de IFN&#150;&#947;; tambi&eacute;n se han localizado los ep&iacute;topes que favorecen estas respuestas. Sin embargo, a pesar de los adelantos logrados a&uacute;n no se cuenta con una nueva vacuna contra el PRRSV que logre una respuesta &oacute;ptima contra el virus. Por esta raz&oacute;n deben explorarse nuevas estrategias, tanto en el uso de nuevos vectores como en las cepas del virus, las prote&iacute;nas o p&eacute;ptidos involucrados, como respuesta, con la finalidad de desarrollar una vacuna m&aacute;s eficaz y segura.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Agradecimientos</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Este trabajo recibi&oacute; el apoyo de Fondos Sectoriales SEP&#150;Conacyt, proyecto n&uacute;mero 82850.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Referencias</b></font></p>     <!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">1. NATIONAL ANIMAL HEALT MONITORING SYSTEM. Prevalence of PRRS virus on the united state. Centers of Epidemiology and Animal Health. United States Department of agriculture: Animal health inspection service. Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America: Center for Epidemiology and Animal health, &#91;serial online&#93; 1995 &#91;cited:2004 June 10&#93; Available from: <a href="http://aphisweb.aphis.usda.gov/ceah/cahm/swine/sw95prr2.htm" target="_blank">http://aphisweb.aphis.usda.gov/ceah/cahm/swine/sw95prr2.htm</a>.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=10204685&pid=S0301-5092201000020000700001&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">2. HURNIK D. The prevalence of transmissible gastroenteritis virus and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus antibodies on Prince Edward Island. The 16th Veterinary Society Congress;2000 september 17&#150;20; Melbourne Australia. Melbourne (Australia): International Pig Veterinary Society 2000:71.</font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=10204686&pid=S0301-5092201000020000700002&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">3. YAHARA Y, YAMAGUCHI T, WENSON M. Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome in Japan a field force survey in 45 farms. The 16th Veterinary Society Conress;2000 September 17&#150;20; Melbourne Australia. 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