<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0185-3325</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Salud mental]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Salud Ment]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0185-3325</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0185-33252012000600011</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Regulación de la neurogénesis hipocámpica por los estrógenos: su relación con la depresión]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Regulation of adult hippocampal neurogenesis by estrogens: relationship to depression]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Vega-Rivera]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Nelly Maritza]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A02"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Fernández-Guasti]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[José Alonso]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A02"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ramírez-Rodríguez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Gerardo Bernabé]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A03"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Castro-García]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Mario]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Estrada-Camarena]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Erika]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz Dirección de Neurociencias Laboratorio de Neuropsicofarmacología]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A02">
<institution><![CDATA[,Instituto Politécnico Nacional Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados Departamento de Farmacobiología]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A03">
<institution><![CDATA[,Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz Subdirección de Investigaciones Clínicas Laboratorio de Neurogénesis]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2012</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2012</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>35</volume>
<numero>6</numero>
<fpage>527</fpage>
<lpage>533</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0185-33252012000600011&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0185-33252012000600011&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0185-33252012000600011&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[Estrogens produce a wide range of biological effects throughout the body, including the Central Nervous System (CNS). In the brain, besides acting as neuroprotective agents, estrogens play an important role in many neuronal processes and certain psychiatric disorders such as depression. The precise mechanism by which estrogens induce their positive effects on depressive disorders has not been elucidated; however, it is known that estrogens act on the CNS through the activation of specific receptors. These actions occur in genomic and non-genomics mechanisms through the modulation of synthesis and metabolism of neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, neurosteroids and influencing the morphological features of neurons and synaptic function. In addition, it is known that estrogens can act as modulators of processes related to neuroplasticity and neurogenesis. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is a neuroplastic process that is affected by antidepressant drugs. These drugs increase the number of new neurons following a temporal course that correlates within the time in which antidepressants cause a behavioral improvement in rodents and in humans. Interestingly, whereas the behavioral antidepressant effects require 2-4 weeks to appear, after treatment initiation, estrogen reduce the depressive-like behavior and induce cell proliferation in terms of days. Thus, antidepressant drugs and the estrogens replacement during the adulthood could influence in a similar manner the new neuron formation. Furthermore, recent works have indicated that the combination of antidepressants plus estrogens could exert beneficial actions at lower doses of estrogens (physiological range). This evidence is important due to the combination of non-effective doses of antidepressants plus estrogens could decrease the side-effects of both compounds, and facilitate the behavioral action of antidepressant drugs shortening the latency to onset their action. The present review discusses recent information about the implication of estrogens in depression, and on their effects as positive regulators of new neuron formation in the adult hippocampus. In addition, we will review the possible implication of last effect of estrogens on their antidepressant effects.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[Los estrógenos producen una amplia gama de efectos biológicos en todo el cuerpo, incluyendo el Sistema Nervioso Central (SNC). En el cerebro, además de actuar como agentes neuroprotectores, los estrógenos desempeñan un papel importante en la regulación de procesos neuronales constituyéndose así como posibles factores relacionados con la etiología de algunos trastornos neuropsiquiátricos, tales como la depresión. Durante los últimos años se ha generado evidencia de la relación existente entre los niveles fisiológicos de los estrógenos y el desarrollo de episodios depresivos. Por otra parte, los estrógenos tienen un papel importante en la inducción de cambios a nivel de la plasticidad neuronal y de la neurogénesis en el hipocampo adulto. A este respecto se ha observado que los estrógenos regulan el desarrollo, la maduración y la sobrevivencia de las nuevas neuronas en el cerebro adulto, de la misma manera que lo hacen los tratamientos antidepresivos. Los efectos de los estrógenos sobre la neurogénesis y la plasticidad neuronal podrían estar regulados por los receptores a estrógenos, tanto el receptor alfa (RE&#945;), como el receptor beta (RE&#946;). Ambos subtipos de receptores se expresan en el hipocampo del cerebro adulto. Así mismo, el hipocampo es una estructura que participa en procesos cognitivos y de memoria y existe evidencia que muestra su participación en la etiología de la depresión y sobre el efecto de los fármacos antidepresivos. La neurogénesis ha sido considerada como un proceso dinámico por medio del cual se forman neuronas funcionales. De tal modo que este proceso también involucra los eventos de sobrevivencia, maduración dendrítica y axonal, así como el establecimiento de conexiones sinápticas para la integración final de las nuevas neuronas en los circuitos neuronales existentes, eventos que son modulados por los fármacos antidepresivos. En el presente artículo se revisa información reciente acerca de los efectos de los estrógenos sobre la depresión y sobre su relación con la neurogénesis hipocámpica.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Estrogens]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[depression]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[adult neurogenesis]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[stress]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[antidepressants]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Estrógenos]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[depresión]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[neurogénesis]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[estrés]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[antidepresivos]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[ <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="4">Art&iacute;culo original</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="4">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="4"><b>Regulaci&oacute;n de la neurog&eacute;nesis hipoc&aacute;mpica por los estr&oacute;genos: su relaci&oacute;n con la depresi&oacute;n</b></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="3"><b>Regulation of adult hippocampal neurogenesis by estrogens: relationship to depression</b></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Nelly Maritza Vega&#150;Rivera,<sup>1,2</sup> Jos&eacute; Alonso Fern&aacute;ndez&#150;Guasti,<sup>2</sup> Gerardo Bernab&eacute; Ram&iacute;rez&#150;Rodr&iacute;guez,<sup>3</sup> Mario Castro&#150;Garc&iacute;a,<sup>1</sup> Erika Estrada&#150;Camarena<sup>1</sup></b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i><sup>1</sup> Laboratorio de Neuropsicofarmacolog&iacute;a, Direcci&oacute;n de Neurociencias, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatr&iacute;a Ram&oacute;n de la Fuente Mu&ntilde;iz.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i><sup>2</sup> Laboratorio de Farmacolog&iacute;a Conductual, Departamento de Farmacobiolog&iacute;a, Centro de Investigaci&oacute;n y de Estudios Avanzados, IPN.</i></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i><sup>3</sup> Laboratorio de Neurog&eacute;nesis, Subdirecci&oacute;n de Investigaciones Cl&iacute;nicas, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatr&iacute;a Ram&oacute;n de la Fuente Mu&ntilde;iz.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Correspondencia:</b>     <br> Dra. Erika Estrada Camarena.     <br>  Laboratorio de Neuropsicofarmacolog&iacute;a, Direcci&oacute;n de Neurociencias.     <br> INPRFM, Calz. M&eacute;xico&#150;Xochimilco 101, San Lorenzo Huipulco, Tlalpan, 14370, M&eacute;xico, DF.     <br> Tel&eacute;fono: +52 (55) 41 60&#150;5053.     <br> E&#150;mail: <a href="mailto:estrada@imp.edu.mx">estrada@imp.edu.mx</a></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Recibido primera versi&oacute;n: 14 de diciembre de 2010.     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<br> Segunda versi&oacute;n: 24 de febrero de 2012.     <br> Tercera versi&oacute;n: 27 de marzo de 2012.     <br> Aceptado: 30 de marzo de 2012.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>SUMMARY</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Estrogens produce a wide range of biological effects throughout the body, including the Central Nervous System (CNS). In the brain, besides acting as neuroprotective agents, estrogens play an important role in many neuronal processes and certain psychiatric disorders such as depression.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">The precise mechanism by which estrogens induce their positive effects on depressive disorders has not been elucidated; however, it is known that estrogens act on the CNS through the activation of specific receptors. These actions occur in genomic and non&#150;genomics mechanisms through the modulation of synthesis and metabolism of neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, neurosteroids and influencing the morphological features of neurons and synaptic function. In addition, it is known that estrogens can act as modulators of processes related to neuroplasticity and neurogenesis.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is a neuroplastic process that is affected by antidepressant drugs. These drugs increase the number of new neurons following a temporal course that correlates within the time in which antidepressants cause a behavioral improvement in rodents and in humans. Interestingly, whereas the behavioral antidepressant effects require 2&#150;4 weeks to appear, after treatment initiation, estrogen reduce the depressive&#150;like behavior and induce cell proliferation in terms of days. Thus, antidepressant drugs and the estrogens replacement during the adulthood could influence in a similar manner the new neuron formation.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Furthermore, recent works have indicated that the combination of antidepressants plus estrogens could exert beneficial actions at lower doses of estrogens (physiological range). This evidence is important due to the combination of non&#150;effective doses of antidepressants plus estrogens could decrease the side&#150;effects of both compounds, and facilitate the behavioral action of antidepressant drugs shortening the latency to onset their action.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">The present review discusses recent information about the implication of estrogens in depression, and on their effects as positive regulators of new neuron formation in the adult hippocampus. In addition, we will review the possible implication of last effect of estrogens on their antidepressant effects.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Key words:</b> Estrogens, depression, adult neurogenesis, stress, antidepressants.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>RESUMEN</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los estr&oacute;genos producen una amplia gama de efectos biol&oacute;gicos en todo el cuerpo, incluyendo el Sistema Nervioso Central (SNC). En el cerebro, adem&aacute;s de actuar como agentes neuroprotectores, los estr&oacute;genos desempe&ntilde;an un papel importante en la regulaci&oacute;n de procesos neuronales constituy&eacute;ndose as&iacute; como posibles factores relacionados con la etiolog&iacute;a de algunos trastornos neuropsiqui&aacute;tricos, tales como la depresi&oacute;n.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Durante los &uacute;ltimos a&ntilde;os se ha generado evidencia de la relaci&oacute;n existente entre los niveles fisiol&oacute;gicos de los estr&oacute;genos y el desarrollo de episodios depresivos.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Por otra parte, los estr&oacute;genos tienen un papel importante en la inducci&oacute;n de cambios a nivel de la plasticidad neuronal y de la neurog&eacute;nesis en el hipocampo adulto. A este respecto se ha observado que los estr&oacute;genos regulan el desarrollo, la maduraci&oacute;n y la sobrevivencia de las nuevas neuronas en el cerebro adulto, de la misma manera que lo hacen los tratamientos antidepresivos. Los efectos de los estr&oacute;genos sobre la neurog&eacute;nesis y la plasticidad neuronal podr&iacute;an estar regulados por los receptores a estr&oacute;genos, tanto el receptor alfa (RE&#945;), como el receptor beta (RE&#946;). Ambos subtipos de receptores se expresan en el hipocampo del cerebro adulto. As&iacute; mismo, el hipocampo es una estructura que participa en procesos cognitivos y de memoria y existe evidencia que muestra su participaci&oacute;n en la etiolog&iacute;a de la depresi&oacute;n y sobre el efecto de los f&aacute;rmacos antidepresivos. La neurog&eacute;nesis ha sido considerada como un proceso din&aacute;mico por medio del cual se forman neuronas funcionales. De tal modo que este proceso tambi&eacute;n involucra los eventos de sobrevivencia, maduraci&oacute;n dendr&iacute;tica y axonal, as&iacute; como el establecimiento de conexiones sin&aacute;pticas para la integraci&oacute;n final de las nuevas neuronas en los circuitos neuronales existentes, eventos que son modulados por los f&aacute;rmacos antidepresivos.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En el presente art&iacute;culo se revisa informaci&oacute;n reciente acerca de los efectos de los estr&oacute;genos sobre la depresi&oacute;n y sobre su relaci&oacute;n con la neurog&eacute;nesis hipoc&aacute;mpica.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Palabras clave: </b>Estr&oacute;genos, depresi&oacute;n, neurog&eacute;nesis, estr&eacute;s, antidepresivos.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>INTRODUCCI&Oacute;N</b></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La depresi&oacute;n es un trastorno afectivo que se presenta como respuesta a una variedad de factores biol&oacute;gicos, gen&eacute;ticos y psicosociales que act&uacute;an como estresores, que en conjunto aumentan la vulnerabilidad de un individuo a padecerla. Actualmente est&aacute; bien establecido que existen diferencias de g&eacute;nero en la prevalencia de dicho trastorno, siendo las mujeres quienes m&aacute;s la padecen.<sup>1&#150;3</sup> La diferencia en la proporci&oacute;n en la que se presentan los trastornos neuropsiqui&aacute;tricos entre hombres y mujeres, y las observaciones derivadas de estudios precl&iacute;nicos y cl&iacute;nicos acerca de los tratamientos de reemplazo hormonal, han sugerido que los estr&oacute;genos desempe&ntilde;an un papel importante en la etiolog&iacute;a de la depresi&oacute;n en las mujeres, as&iacute; como en su tratamiento.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El mecanismo por el cual los estr&oacute;genos disminuyen los s&iacute;ntomas depresivos no ha sido del todo elucidado. As&iacute;, se propone la participaci&oacute;n de receptores a estr&oacute;genos (RE) intracelulares (RE de tipo &#945; y RE de tipo &#946;) y membranales (REm), <i>(vide infra) </i>en la regulaci&oacute;n de la neurotransmisi&oacute;n monoamin&eacute;rgica y la modulaci&oacute;n del proceso neurog&eacute;nico y la plasticidad neuronal. La regulaci&oacute;n de estos procesos podr&iacute;a establecerse de manera simult&aacute;nea por medio de la activaci&oacute;n de genes cuya expresi&oacute;n en el hipocampo se ve alterada en uno y otro sentido tanto por el estr&eacute;s como por los tratamientos antidepresivos.<sup>4,5</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>ESTR&Oacute;GENOS Y DEPRESI&Oacute;N</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los estudios epidemiol&oacute;gicos muestran que la depresi&oacute;n es uno de los trastornos neuropsiqui&aacute;tricos m&aacute;s frecuentes e incapacitantes a nivel mundial, siendo las mujeres quienes m&aacute;s los padecen, ya que por cada hombre hay tres mujeres que la sufren.<sup>6&#150;8</sup> Esta diferencia ha sugerido que las hormonas gonadales pueden incidir en la frecuencia con la que se presenta esta enfermedad en el humano.<sup>9</sup> Algunos estudios cl&iacute;nicos han encontrado que la prevalencia de la depresi&oacute;n aumenta notablemente durante per&iacute;odos en donde se presentan cambios bruscos en los niveles hormonales tales como el final del ciclo menstrual, el per&iacute;odo post&#150;parto y el periodo de transici&oacute;n a la menopausia.<sup>5,10&#150;13</sup> De tal modo que se ha reportado que cerca del 5% de las mujeres presentan depresi&oacute;n durante el per&iacute;odo premenstrual; alrededor del 5% inicia un periodo depresivo mayor no psic&oacute;tico inmediatamente despu&eacute;s del parto, y aproximadamente el 2% desarrolla trastornos afectivos psic&oacute;ticos.<sup>8</sup> Otras investigaciones indican tambi&eacute;n que los estr&oacute;genos disminuyen los s&iacute;ntomas depresivos asociados con los cambios endocrinos por los que cursa la mujer a lo largo de su vida. Por ejemplo, se ha reportado que despu&eacute;s de una terapia de restituci&oacute;n hormonal con estr&oacute;genos los s&iacute;ntomas depresivos disminuyen r&aacute;pidamente en mujeres con s&iacute;ndrome premenstrual, con depresi&oacute;n post&#150;parto y en peri&#150;menop&aacute;usicas.<sup>10&#150;14</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">De la misma manera, estudios pre&#150;cl&iacute;nicos han revelado la participaci&oacute;n de los estr&oacute;genos en la depresi&oacute;n experimental. En este sentido se ha observado que las oscilaciones en los niveles de E<sub>2</sub> y progesterona a lo largo del ciclo estral modifican la conducta de tipo depresivo en los roedores. Por ejemplo, en la fase de diestro, en donde los niveles de hormonas gonadales son bajos en comparaci&oacute;n con otras fases del ciclo, las ratas presentan un aumento en la conducta de tipo depresivo en el modelo de la prueba de nado forzado (PNF).<sup>15,16</sup> En cambio, las ratas que se encuentran en la fase tard&iacute;a de proestro, en donde los niveles hormonales se encuentran aumentados, muestran menos conductas de este tipo.<sup>16</sup> De igual manera, utilizando un modelo de depresi&oacute;n post&#150;parto se ha observado que la supresi&oacute;n brusca de las hormonas estradiol y progesterona produce el aumento de la conducta de tipo depresivo en la PNF,<sup>17&#150;19</sup> y este efecto puede revertirse con la administraci&oacute;n cr&oacute;nica de estradiol.<sup>17</sup> Resultados semejantes se han encontrado con otros modelos de depresi&oacute;n como el de la suspensi&oacute;n de la cola y el estr&eacute;s cr&oacute;nico moderado.<sup>20,21 </sup>Adem&aacute;s, la administraci&oacute;n de E<sub>2</sub> o progesterona a ratas ovariectomizadas (OVX) reduce la expresi&oacute;n de la conducta de tipo depresivo en la PNF (inmovilidad).<sup>22&#150;25</sup> Este efecto es similar al que producen los f&aacute;rmacos antidepresivos en la misma prueba.<sup>22&#150;25</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El mecanismo por medio del cual los estr&oacute;genos ejercen un efecto tipo antidepresivo no ha sido del todo elucidado pero algunos datos de la bibliograf&iacute;a sugieren un mecanismo complejo en el que posiblemente intervienen tres participantes: los receptores a estr&oacute;genos, las monoaminas y la neurog&eacute;nesis.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>LOS ESTR&Oacute;GENOS</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Durante los &uacute;ltimos a&ntilde;os se ha generado evidencia que sugiere que los estr&oacute;genos regulan m&uacute;ltiples funciones biol&oacute;gicas en todo el cuerpo.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los estr&oacute;genos producen en general una amplia gama de efectos biol&oacute;gicos, incluyendo acciones sobre el SNC. Mediante la estimulaci&oacute;n de RE generan el crecimiento y el desarrollo de la vagina, el &uacute;tero y los oviductos.<sup>26</sup> De igual manera contribuyen al agrandamiento de las mamas, al moldeo de los contornos corporales y al desencadenamiento del brote de crecimiento puberal tanto en huesos largos, como de vello axilar y p&uacute;bico. En el SNC los estr&oacute;genos act&uacute;an de forma importante por medio de mecanismos gen&oacute;micos (receptores intracelulares) y no gen&oacute;micos (receptores membranales) modulando la s&iacute;ntesis, liberaci&oacute;n y metabolismo de neurotransmisores, neurop&eacute;ptidos y neuroesteroides.<sup>27 </sup>Tambi&eacute;n pueden actuar como moduladores de procesos relacionados con la plasticidad sin&aacute;ptica, el desarrollo neuronal<sup>28&#150;31</sup> y como reguladores de ciertas funciones cerebrales tales como la conducta, la memoria y la cognici&oacute;n.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>LOS RECEPTORES A ESTR&Oacute;GENOS</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Dentro de las acciones de los estr&oacute;genos en el SNC se distinguen cuando menos dos mecanismos de acci&oacute;n: el cl&aacute;sico o gen&oacute;mico y el no gen&oacute;mico. El mecanismo de acci&oacute;n gen&oacute;mico, cuyas acciones biol&oacute;gicas requieren horas e incluso d&iacute;as para ser observadas, es mediado por la uni&oacute;n del estr&oacute;geno al RE citoplasm&aacute;tico formando un complejo que se trasloca al n&uacute;cleo donde funcionan como factores de transcripci&oacute;n (<a href="#f1">figura 1</a>).<sup>32</sup> Existen dos tipos de receptores intracelulares a estr&oacute;genos, los RE&#945; y los RE&#946;, los cuales a pesar de presentar homolog&iacute;a en su dominio de uni&oacute;n al &aacute;cido desoxirribonucleico (ADN), tienen diferencias importantes en el sitio de uni&oacute;n a la hormona siendo estas diferencias las responsables de que posean una afinidad de uni&oacute;n a diferentes compuestos esteroidales.<sup>33,34</sup> Estudios de hibridaci&oacute;n <i>in situ </i>e inmuno&#150;histoqu&iacute;mica han revelado que ambos subtipos de RE se encuentran distribuidos en el hipocampo<sup>35&#150;39</sup> que es una estructura del sistema l&iacute;mbico que ha sido relacionada tanto con la etiolog&iacute;a como con el tratamiento de la depresi&oacute;n<sup>34,40 </sup>y en donde se sabe que acontece de forma constitutiva la formaci&oacute;n de neuronas nuevas en el cerebro adulto.<sup>41,42</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><a name="f1"></a></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><img src="/img/revistas/sm/v35n6/a11f1.jpg"></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>LOS ESTR&Oacute;GENOS Y LA NEUROG&Eacute;NESIS</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Adem&aacute;s de los efectos de tipo antidepresivo atribuidos a los estr&oacute;genos, se sabe ahora que estas hormonas act&uacute;an como reguladores positivos en la generaci&oacute;n de nuevas neuronas en el hipocampo del cerebro adulto.<sup>43&#150;45</sup></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La formaci&oacute;n de c&eacute;lulas de nueva generaci&oacute;n en el GD del hipocampo fue reportada en los a&ntilde;os sesenta por Altman.<sup>46</sup> Esta evidencia sent&oacute; las bases para demostrar la existencia del desarrollo neuronal en el adulto. Este proceso est&aacute; conformado por varios eventos entre los que se encuentran: la divisi&oacute;n de las c&eacute;lulas madre, la proliferaci&oacute;n de los neuroblastos, la migraci&oacute;n y la sobrevivencia celular, la maduraci&oacute;n dendr&iacute;tica y la elongaci&oacute;n axonal, as&iacute; como por el establecimiento de conexiones sin&aacute;pticas funcionales para que estas neuronas de nueva generaci&oacute;n se integren a los circuitos neuronales existentes (<a href="#f1">figura 1</a>).<sup>42,47</sup> Dada la participaci&oacute;n de diversos eventos en el desarrollo neuronal en el hipocampo del cerebro adulto, este proceso es regulado de forma fina por diversos factores como los neurotransmisores, los factores de crecimiento y las neurotrofinas, as&iacute; como por algunas hormonas como los estr&oacute;genos y los glucocorticoides.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">De forma particular, el E<sub>2</sub> altera de manera din&aacute;mica la neurog&eacute;nesis en el GD del hipocampo.<sup>43,45,48</sup> El estradiol tiene la capacidad de aumentar la proliferaci&oacute;n celular en el GD de roedores hembra adultos<sup>44,49</sup> y de inhibir la muerte celular,<sup>50</sup> as&iacute; como de inducir un incremento tanto en las sin&aacute;psis como en el n&uacute;mero de espinas dendr&iacute;ticas en las neuronas del hipocampo.<sup>31</sup> No obstante, cabe se&ntilde;alar que estos cambios pl&aacute;sticos dependen, a la vez, de diversos factores entre los que se encuentran los niveles de estradiol, el tiempo que dura el tratamiento con estr&oacute;genos, del tiempo de evaluaci&oacute;n posterior al tratamiento, el sexo del sujeto<sup>49</sup> y al periodo en el que se inicia la restituci&oacute;n hormonal despu&eacute;s de la eliminaci&oacute;n de la g&oacute;nada.<sup>51</sup> As&iacute;, se ha visto que una exposici&oacute;n aguda (2&#150;4 h) al estradiol induce un aumento en la proliferaci&oacute;n celular, mientras que una exposici&oacute;n cr&oacute;nica (14 d&iacute;as), adem&aacute;s de favorecer la proliferaci&oacute;n, previene la muerte celular.<sup>45,52</sup> Se ha demostrado tambi&eacute;n que dependiendo del estado endocrino de la rata hembra, los niveles de proliferaci&oacute;n celular son mayores que en individuos del sexo masculino.<sup>43,53</sup> Por ejemplo, en la fase de proestro, en la que los niveles de estradiol y progesterona se encuentran elevados, la proliferaci&oacute;n celular es mayor que en ratas macho. <sup>43</sup> Aunado a esto, el tiempo post&#150;ovariectomia, es decir el tiempo posterior al retiro de la fuente de hormonas gonadales, puede estar regulando el evento de proliferaci&oacute;n celular. As&iacute;, se ha visto que en ratas OVX el estradiol administrado durante dos semanas, pero no cuatro, despu&eacute;s de la cirug&iacute;a, induce un aumento en la proliferaci&oacute;n celular.<sup>51,54 </sup>Por lo tanto es posible sugerir que los niveles fisiol&oacute;gicos de estradiol regulan la neurog&eacute;nesis hipoc&aacute;mpica.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">A este respecto se ha considerado que parte de las acciones del E<sub>2</sub> sobre la proliferaci&oacute;n celular est&aacute;n mediadas por los RE, tanto &#945; como &#946;, debido a que en ambos subtipos de receptores, adem&aacute;s de haber sido localizados en el giro dentado de la rata, se ha visto que despu&eacute;s de un tratamiento con estradiol las c&eacute;lulas que expresan Ki&#150;67 (un marcador end&oacute;geno de la proliferaci&oacute;n celular) co&#150;expresan el &aacute;cido ribonucl&eacute;ico (ARN) tanto del RE&#945; como del RE&#946;,<sup>55 </sup>posiblemente debido a mecanismos independientes de los receptores a estr&oacute;genos cl&aacute;sicos, ya que se ha observado que el antagonista a estos receptores, el ICI 182,780, no cancela completamente el aumento de la proliferaci&oacute;n celular inducida por el E<sub>2</sub>.<sup>38</sup> De igual manera se ha visto que ni los agonistas a los RE&#945; ni los agonistas a los RE&#946; son capaces de aumentar la proliferaci&oacute;n celular en el mismo grado que lo hace el E<sub>2</sub> <i>per </i>se.<sup>54</sup> Esto sugiere que el E<sub>2</sub> podr&iacute;a estar activando mecanismos adicionales a los activados por los RE que podr&iacute;an estar modulando algunos aspectos de la neurog&eacute;nesis y que posiblemente esto est&eacute; relacionado con su efecto de tipo antidepresivo. De hecho se reporta que el RE&#946; es el responsable de las acciones antidepresivas del E<sub>2</sub>. Tambi&eacute;n se sabe que el E<sub>2</sub> puede activar cascadas de se&ntilde;alizaci&oacute;n intracelular como la del adenos&iacute;n monofosfato c&iacute;clico (AMPc) y la del trifosfato de inositol (IP<sub>3</sub>), las cuales se activan en respuesta a los tratamientos antidepresivos e inducen activaci&oacute;n de la prote&iacute;na que se une al elemento de respuesta al AMPc (CREB) y, en consecuencia, la expresi&oacute;n de neurotrofinas tales como el factor neuronal derivado del cerebro (BDNF, por sus siglas en ingl&eacute;s),<sup>56&#150;58</sup> el cual se sabe que promueve la diferenciaci&oacute;n y sobrevivencia neuronal en el cerebro adulto<sup>58</sup> (<a href="#f1">figura 1</a>).</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>La depresi&oacute;n y su relaci&oacute;n con la neurog&eacute;nesis</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El estr&eacute;s es la respuesta del organismo ante eventos adversos conocidos como estresores. Para ello el organismo responde mediante la activaci&oacute;n de diversos mecanismos tales como el aumento del tono vascular, la r&aacute;pida disposici&oacute;n de energ&iacute;a y la supresi&oacute;n de actividades anab&oacute;licas, alertando de esta forma sobre la alteraci&oacute;n de la homeostasis y permitiendo la adaptabilidad al medio y, por lo tanto, el restablecimiento del balance homeost&aacute;sico.<sup>59</sup> Sin embargo, cuando el estr&eacute;s se presenta de forma cr&oacute;nica e impredecible puede llegar a alterar la fisiolog&iacute;a cerebral de un individuo e incrementar su vulnerabilidad al grado de llevarlo a desarrollar un estado de depresi&oacute;n mayor<sup>60&#150;62</sup> e inducir alteraciones morfol&oacute;gicas y funcionales en diferentes estructuras cerebrales del sistema l&iacute;mbico, tales como la corteza prefrontal, la am&iacute;gdala y el hipocampo.<sup>63&#150;67</sup> De tal modo que el estr&eacute;s es considerado como uno de los factores m&aacute;s importantes que pueden precipitar un episodio depresivo, as&iacute; como un regulador negativo de la neurog&eacute;nesis hipoc&aacute;mpica.<sup>68,69</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Recientemente se ha propuesto que una falla en la neurog&eacute;nesis hipoc&aacute;mpica podr&iacute;a predisponer a los individuos a la depresi&oacute;n. En este sentido, algunos estudios cl&iacute;nicos han reportado que pacientes que sufren depresi&oacute;n, adem&aacute;s de presentar una desregulaci&oacute;n en el funcionamiento del eje hipot&aacute;lamo&#150;hip&oacute;fisis&#150;gl&aacute;ndula adrenal (HHA), el cual a su vez coordina a nivel neuroend&oacute;crino las respuestas al estr&eacute;s por medio de la liberaci&oacute;n de glucocorticoides,<sup>59,70,71 </sup>muestran cambios morfol&oacute;gicos tales como la reducci&oacute;n en el volumen hipoc&aacute;mpico, en el de la corteza prefrontal, as&iacute; como atrofia y p&eacute;rdida neuronal.<sup>63,65,72&#150;74</sup> En algunos estudios pre&#150;cl&iacute;nicos se ha reportado que diferentes tipos de estresores, tales como el estr&eacute;s cr&oacute;nico impredecible, la restricci&oacute;n de movimiento, el olor a un depredador, entre otros, afectan el proceso neurog&eacute;nico en el hipocampo.<sup>75&#150;77</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Aunado a lo anterior, el tratamiento cr&oacute;nico con antidepresivos revierte la atrofia de las dendritas de las neuronas del hipocampo causada por el estr&eacute;s y favorece la neurog&eacute;nesis hipoc&aacute;mpica.<sup>78&#150;81</sup> Considerando lo anterior, los datos sugieren que los f&aacute;rmacos antidepresivos act&uacute;an a trav&eacute;s de diferentes mecanismos siendo algunos de &eacute;stos independientes o dependientes de la neurog&eacute;nesis. As&iacute;, inmediatamente despu&eacute;s del tratamiento con antidepresivos inhibidores de la recaptura de monoaminas, por ejemplo, los niveles de neurotrasmisores aumentan r&aacute;pidamente. Sin embargo los efectos antidepresivos a nivel conductual se observan despu&eacute;s de un tratamiento cr&oacute;nico de al menos 3&#150;4 semanas. Este tiempo es el que requiere una neurona para formarse, integrarse y ser funcional, lo que permite sugerir que en buena parte las acciones antidepresivas de algunos f&aacute;rmacos requieren de este proceso.<sup>57,81&#150;89</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">A pesar del avance que se ha obtenido en relaci&oacute;n a los efectos de los estr&oacute;genos sobre la plasticidad neuronal (remodelaci&oacute;n dendr&iacute;tica y/o formaci&oacute;n de neuronas) y su mecanismo de acci&oacute;n como agentes antidepresivos, a&uacute;n se requiere de trabajo adicional para evaluar si tal efecto antidepresivo est&aacute; asociado a un proceso neurog&eacute;nico o a un proceso de plasticidad neuronal, como ocurre con los antidepresivos. M&aacute;s a&uacute;n, en estudios precl&iacute;nicos la combinaci&oacute;n de f&aacute;rmacos antidepresivos como la fluoxetina y la desipramina con estr&oacute;genos acorta la latencia para observar un efecto antidepresivo.<sup>90,91</sup> Esto &uacute;ltimo podr&iacute;a generar beneficios a diferentes niveles, tanto en la reducci&oacute;n de los efectos secundarios de los estr&oacute;genos como en los de los f&aacute;rmacos antidepresivos, as&iacute; como la obtenci&oacute;n de un efecto antidepresivo en tiempos m&aacute;s breves.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Con base en lo anterior es factible considerar que los efectos antidepresivos y facilitadores de los estr&oacute;genos est&eacute;n relacionados con la regulaci&oacute;n de las diferentes etapas de la neurog&eacute;nesis y con los cambios en la remodelaci&oacute;n dendr&iacute;tica en neuronas localizadas en otras &aacute;reas del sistema l&iacute;mbico.<sup>92</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>CONCLUSIONES</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los trastornos neuropsiqui&aacute;tricos son el resultado de situaciones multifactoriales, siendo el estr&eacute;s uno de los factores que los pueden desencadenar, en especial la depresi&oacute;n. Dado que la ausencia de estr&oacute;genos afecta no s&oacute;lo a la conducta sino tambi&eacute;n a la neurog&eacute;nesis hipoc&aacute;mpica, es posible que los estr&oacute;genos ejerzan un papel relevante para prevenir o reducir los s&iacute;ntomas de la depresi&oacute;n. Adem&aacute;s, la administraci&oacute;n de estr&oacute;genos revierte o protege al cerebro de los efectos del estr&eacute;s, favorece la formaci&oacute;n de neuronas en el hipocampo y la remodelaci&oacute;n dendr&iacute;tica y de las espinas dendr&iacute;ticas, lo que podr&iacute;a tener repercusiones importantes en la prevenci&oacute;n del desarrollo de la depresi&oacute;n en etapas de mayor vulnerabilidad como el periodo de transici&oacute;n a la menopausia.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Sin embargo, tambi&eacute;n es necesario considerar que los efectos tr&oacute;ficos de los estr&oacute;genos tambi&eacute;n incluyen tejidos perif&eacute;ricos (por ejemplo, el &uacute;tero y las gl&aacute;ndulas mamarias), lo cual podr&iacute;a resultar en un efecto adverso. Por ello resulta importante la exploraci&oacute;n de otros compuestos estrog&eacute;nicos, de sus efectos conductuales, neurog&eacute;nicos y neuropl&aacute;sticos a dosis bajas y con esquemas de administraci&oacute;n cortos, as&iacute; como el estudio de los mecanismos que participan en la regulaci&oacute;n del efecto de los f&aacute;rmacos antidepresivos.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>REFERENCIAS</b></font></p>     <!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">1. Gutierrez&#150;Lobos K, Scherer M, Anderer P, Katschnig H. The influence of age on the female/male ratio of treated incidence ratesin depression. 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