<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0185-3325</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Salud mental]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Salud Ment]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0185-3325</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0185-33252011000200010</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Alteraciones del ciclo circadiano en las enfermedades psiquiátricas: papel sincronizador de la melatonina en el ciclo sueño-vigilia y la polaridad neuronal]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Circadian cycle alterations in psychiatric diseases: melatonin role as a synchronizer of sleep-awake cycle and the neuronal polarity]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Jiménez-Rubio]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Graciela]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Solís-Chagoyán]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Héctor]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Domínguez-Alonso]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Aline]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Benítez-King]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Gloria]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A02"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñíz Subdirección de Investigaciones Clínicas Departamento de Neurofarmacología]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A02">
<institution><![CDATA[,Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñíz Departamento de Neurofarmacología ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[México DF]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2011</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2011</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>34</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<fpage>167</fpage>
<lpage>173</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0185-33252011000200010&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0185-33252011000200010&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0185-33252011000200010&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[Circadian rhythms are oscillations of physiological functions. The period of their oscillation is about 24 h, and can be synchronized by environmental periodic signals as night-day cycle. The endogenous periodical changes depend on various structural elements of the circadian system which consists of the effectors, the secondary oscillators, the synchronizers and the circadian pacemaker. In mammalian species, the physiological function better understood respect their oscillation pattern are the synthesis and release of several hormones (i.e. cortisol and melatonin), the body temperature, the sleep-awake cycle, the locomotive activity, cell proliferation, neuronal activity among other rhythms. The Suprachiasmatic nucleus is the main circadian pacemarker in mammals; its oscillation keeps the circadian system synchronized particularly with respect to the environment photo period. When light reaches the pigment melanopsin in ganglionar neurons in the retina, the photoperiod signal is sent to Suprachiasmatic nucleus, and its postsinaptic neurons distributes the temporal signal to pheripheral oscillators by nervous or humoral pathways. Among the oscillators, the pineal gland is a peripheral one modulated by Suprachiasmatic nucleus. At night, the indolamine melatonin is synthesized and released from pinealocytes, and reaches other peripheral oscillators. Melatonin interacts with membrane receptors on Suprachiasmatic nucleus pacemarker neurons, reinforcing the signal of the photoperiod. In mammals, exogenous melatonin synchronizes several circadian rhythms including locomotive activity and melatonin release. When this indolamine is applied directly into the Suprachiasmatic nucleus, it produces a phase advance of the endogenous melatonin peak and increases the amplitude of the oscillation. In humans, melatonin effect on the circadian system is evident because it changes the circadian rhythms phase in subjects with advanced sleep-phase syndrome, night workers or blind people. Also it reduces jet lag symptoms enhancing sleep quality and reseting the circadian system to local time. Melatonin effects on circadian rhythms indicate their role as a chronobiotic, since decreased daily melatonin levels that occur with age and in neuropsychiatric disorders are associated with disturbances in the sleep-awake cycle. In particular, it has been described that Alzheimer's disease patients have disturbed sleep-awake cycle and have decreased serum melatonin levels. Sleep disorders in Alzheimer's disease patients decrease when they are treated with melatonin. Moreover, sleep disturbances have been observed in bipolar disorder patients and often precede relapses of insomnia-associated mania and hypersomnia-associated depression. These disturbances are linked to delayed- and advanced- phases of circadian rhythms or arrhythmia; therefore, it has been suggested that bipolar disorder patients could be treated with light and dark therapy. In depressed patients, the levels of melatonin are low throughout the 24 hour period and have a delayed onset of the indolamine concentration and showed an advance of its peak. Schizophrenic patients have decreased levels in the plasmatic melatonin in both phases of the light-dark cycle. Melatonin administration to these patients increases their sleep efficiency. In addition, melatonin acts as a neuroprotector because of its potent antioxidant action and through its cytoskeletal modulation properties. In neurodegenerative animal models, its protector effect has been observed using okadaic acid. This neurotoxin is employed for reproducing cytoskeletal damage in neurons and increased oxidative stress levels, which are molecular events similar to those that occur in Alzheimer's disease. In N1E-115 cell cultures incubated with okadaic acid, the administration of melatonin diminishes hyperphosphorylated tau and oxidative stress levels, and prevents the neurocytoskeletal damage caused by the neurotoxin. Although it is known that melatonin plays a key role in the circadian rhythms entrainment, little is known about its synchronizing effects at molecular and structural level. In algae, it has been observed a link between morphological changes and the light-dark cycle and it is known that shape is determinated by the cytoskeletal structure. In particular, the alga Euglena gracilis changes its shape two times per day under the effect of a daily light-dark cycle. This alga has a long shape when there is a higher photosynthetic capacity at the half period of the day; on the contrary, it showed a rounded shape at the end of 24 h cycle. Also, the influence of the cell shape changes on the photosynthetic reactions was investigated by altering them with drugs that disrupt the cytoskeletal structure as cytochalasin B and colchicine. Both inhibitors blocked the rhythmic shape changes and the photo-synthetic rhythm. Moreover, there are some reports about cytoskeletal changes in plants targeted by circadian rhythms. Guarda cells of Vicia faba L. showed a diurnal cycle on the alpha and beta tubulin levels. In addition, it has been proposed that melatonin synchronizes different body rhythms through cytoskeletal rearrangements. In culture cells, nanomolar melatonin concentrations cause an increase in both the polimerization rate and microtubule formation through calmodulin antagonism. A cyclic pattern produced by melatonin in the actin microfilament organization has been demonstrated in canine kidney cells. Cyclic incubation of MDCK cells with nanomolar concentrations of melatonin, resembling the cyclic pattern of secretion and release to plasma produces a microfilament reorganization and the formation of domes. Studies in animals are controvertial regarding if the amount of microtubules in different tissues varies cyclically. In rats and baboons, melatonin administration or exposure of rats to darkness induced an increased number of microtubules in the pineal gland. However, in the hypothalamus, the exposure of rats to light resulted in an increase in the microtubular protein content. Similarly, (X-tubulin mRNA was augmented during the light phase in the hypothalamus, hippocampus and cortex. By contrast, in rats maintained in constant darkness, a decreased level in the tubulin content was observed in the visual cortex. Additional information on cycle variations observed in cytoskeletal molecules indicated that beta actin mRNA levels are lower during the day in the hippocampus and cortex. But no change was observed in actin protein levels in the cerebral cortex. However, increased levels of actin and its mRNA were observed in the hypothalamus. Exogenous melatonin administration at onset of night decreased the amount of actin in the hypothalamus, while the actin mRNA levels decreased when the administration was realized in the morning. In this review we will describe the synchronizer role of melatonin in the sleep-awake cycle and in the organization of cytoskeletal proteins and their mRNAs. Also, we will describe alterations in the melatonin secretion rhythm associated with a neuronal cytoskeleton disorganization in the neuropsychiatric diseases such as Alzheimer, depression, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[Los ritmos circadianos son patrones de oscilación con un periodo cercano a 24h que se observan en los procesos fisiológicos. En los mamíferos se han descrito funciones biológicas con regulación circádica tal como el ciclo sueño-vigilia. La administración de la melatonina, una indolamina secretada por la glándula pineal, sincroniza los ritmos circadianos. En los humanos, este efecto se ha estudiado en sujetos con síndrome de <<fase de retraso de sueño&gt;&gt;, personas que sufren el síndrome de jet lag, en los trabajadores nocturnos y en los invidentes. La melatonina puede reducir los síntomas de jet lag y mejorar la calidad del sueño, además de acelerar la sincronización de la fase circadiana al tiempo local. Los niveles de la melatonina disminuyen con la edad y en las enfermedades neurodegenerativas y psiquiátricas. Los pacientes con enfermedad de Alzheimer muestran alteraciones del sueño como cambios en su ritmicidad y en su estructura. La administración de la melatonina a estos pacientes provoca mejoría en los síntomas de agitación que se presentan al atardecer. Los pacientes con trastorno bipolar manifiestan insomnio asociado con la fase de manía e hipersomnia durante la fase de depresión. Estas alteraciones en el sueño se relacionan con un desfasamiento del ritmo circadiano y/o arritmia. En pacientes con depresión y con esquizofrenia existe una disminución en los niveles plasmáticos de la melatonina en ambas fases del ciclo luz-oscuridad. La administración de melatonina incrementa la eficiencia del sueño en ellos. Además de las alteraciones en el sueño y en el ritmo de secreción de la melatonina observado en pacientes neuropsiquiátricos, existen cambios estructurales y funcionales en regiones específicas cerebrales que son producidas por la pérdida neuronal o por alteraciones de la polaridad y de la morfología neuronal, que son funciones reguladas por el citoesqueleto. A pesar de la información que existe sobre el papel de la melatonina como un sincronizador de los ritmos biológicos, no se conoce si ésta sincroniza la citoarquitectura neuronal. Está descrito que en organismos unicelulares, en plantas y en especies de vertebrados, existen cambios rítmicos en la organización del citoesqueleto asociados con el fotoperiodo. En células en cultivo la melatonina produce un aumento en la formación de los microtúbulos. En roedores, la administración de esta indolamina y la exposición a la oscuridad constante produce un incremento en el contenido de los microtúbulos en la glándula pineal. Sin embargo la exposición constante a la luz, que inhibe la síntesis de la melatonina, produce un incremento en el contenido de los microtúbulos hipotalámicos, en tanto que el RNAm de &#945;-tubulina en el hipotálamo, el hipocampo y la corteza cerebral, se incrementa durante el día. La regulación cíclica de la organización de los microfilament os de actina inducida por la melatonina se ha demostrado en células de riñón en cultivo. La melatonina provoca un incremento en la reorganización de actina asociado con un aumento en la formación de domos los cuales son un índice del transporte bidireccional de agua en las células epiteliales. En tanto que, en estudios en roedores, se ha observado que los niveles de RNAm de actina se incrementan durante la noche en el hipocampo y en la corteza. Sin embargo, otros estudios señalan que la melatonina tiene un efecto inhibitorio en la síntesis de actina en el hipotálamo. En esta revisión se describe el papel sincronizador de la melatonina en el ciclo sueño-vigilia y en la estructura del citoesqueleto neuronal. Asimismo, se menciona cómo en las enfermedades neuropsiquiátricas el ritmo de secreción de la melatonina se encuentra alterado, lo cual se puede asociar con una desorganización del citoesqueleto neuronal.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Melatonin]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[neuropsychiatric diseases]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[circadian rhythms]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[microtubules]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[microfilaments]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Melatonina]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[enfermedades neuropsiquiátricas]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[ritmos circadianos]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[microtúbulos]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[microfilamentos]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[ <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="4">Actualizaci&oacute;n por temas</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="4"><b>Alteraciones del ciclo circadiano en las enfermedades psiqui&aacute;tricas: papel sincronizador de la melatonina en el ciclo sue&ntilde;o&#150;vigilia y la polaridad neuronal</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="3"><b>Circadian cycle alterations in psychiatric diseases: melatonin role as a synchronizer of sleep&#150;awake cycle and the neuronal polarity</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Graciela Jim&eacute;nez&#150;Rubio,<sup>1</sup> H&eacute;ctor Sol&iacute;s&#150;Chagoy&aacute;n,<sup>1</sup> Aline Dom&iacute;nguez&#150;Alonso,<sup>1</sup> Gloria Ben&iacute;tez&#150;King<sup>1</sup></b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><sup><i>1 </i></sup><i>Departamento de Neurofarmacolog&iacute;a. Subdirecci&oacute;n de Investigaciones Cl&iacute;nicas. Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatr&iacute;a Ram&oacute;n de la Fuente Mu&ntilde;&iacute;z.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Correspondencia:</b>     <br> Dra. Gloria Ben&iacute;tez&#150;King.     <br> Departamento de Neurofarmacolog&iacute;a.     <br> Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatr&iacute;a Ram&oacute;n de la Fuente Mu&ntilde;&iacute;z.     <br> Calzada M&eacute;xico&#150;Xochimilco 101, San Lorenzo Huipulco,     <br> Tlalpan, 14370, M&eacute;xico, DF.     <br> Tel: (55)41605097, (55)41605099, Fax: (55) 55133722.     <br> E&#150;Mail: <a href="mailto:bekin@imp.edu.mx">bekin@imp.edu.mx</a>; <a href="mailto:graylin@imp.edu.mx">graylin@imp.edu.mx</a></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Recibido: 27 de octubre de 2010.    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<br> Aceptado: 6 de diciembre de 2010.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Abstract</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Circadian rhythms are oscillations of physiological functions. The period of their oscillation is about 24 h, and can be synchronized by environmental periodic signals as night&#150;day cycle.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">The endogenous periodical changes depend on various structural elements of the circadian system which consists of the effectors, the secondary oscillators, the synchronizers and the circadian pacemaker.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">In mammalian species, the physiological function better understood respect their oscillation pattern are the synthesis and release of several hormones (i.e. cortisol and melatonin), the body temperature, the sleep&#150;awake cycle, the locomotive activity, cell proliferation, neuronal activity among other rhythms.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">The Suprachiasmatic nucleus is the main circadian pacemarker in mammals; its oscillation keeps the circadian system synchronized particularly with respect to the environment photo period. When light reaches the pigment melanopsin in ganglionar neurons in the retina, the photoperiod signal is sent to Suprachiasmatic nucleus, and its postsinaptic neurons distributes the temporal signal to pheripheral oscillators by nervous or humoral pathways.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Among the oscillators, the pineal gland is a peripheral one modulated by Suprachiasmatic nucleus. At night, the indolamine melatonin is synthesized and released from pinealocytes, and reaches other peripheral oscillators. Melatonin interacts with membrane receptors on Suprachiasmatic nucleus pacemarker neurons, reinforcing the signal of the photoperiod.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">In mammals, exogenous melatonin synchronizes several circadian rhythms including locomotive activity and melatonin release. When this indolamine is applied directly into the Suprachiasmatic nucleus, it produces a phase advance of the endogenous melatonin peak and increases the amplitude of the oscillation.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">In humans, melatonin effect on the circadian system is evident because it changes the circadian rhythms phase in subjects with advanced sleep&#150;phase syndrome, night workers or blind people. Also it reduces jet lag symptoms enhancing sleep quality and reseting the circadian system to local time.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Melatonin effects on circadian rhythms indicate their role as a chronobiotic, since decreased daily melatonin levels that occur with age and in neuropsychiatric disorders are associated with disturbances in the sleep&#150;awake cycle.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">In particular, it has been described that Alzheimer's disease patients have disturbed sleep&#150;awake cycle and have decreased serum melatonin levels. Sleep disorders in Alzheimer's disease patients decrease when they are treated with melatonin. Moreover, sleep disturbances have been observed in bipolar disorder patients and often precede relapses of insomnia&#150;associated mania and hypersomnia&#150;associated depression. These disturbances are linked to delayed&#150; and advanced&#150; phases of circadian rhythms or arrhythmia; therefore, it has been suggested that bipolar disorder patients could be treated with light and dark therapy. In depressed patients, the levels of melatonin are low throughout the 24 hour period and have a delayed onset of the indolamine concentration and showed an advance of its peak.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Schizophrenic patients have decreased levels in the plasmatic melatonin in both phases of the light&#150;dark cycle. Melatonin administration to these patients increases their sleep efficiency.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">In addition, melatonin acts as a neuroprotector because of its potent antioxidant action and through its cytoskeletal modulation properties. In neurodegenerative animal models, its protector effect has been observed using okadaic acid. This neurotoxin is employed for reproducing cytoskeletal damage in neurons and increased oxidative stress levels, which are molecular events similar to those that occur in Alzheimer's disease.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">In N1E&#150;115 cell cultures incubated with okadaic acid, the administration of melatonin diminishes hyperphosphorylated tau and oxidative stress levels, and prevents the neurocytoskeletal damage caused by the neurotoxin.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Although it is known that melatonin plays a key role in the circadian rhythms entrainment, little is known about its synchronizing effects at molecular and structural level. In algae, it has been observed a link between morphological changes and the light&#150;dark cycle and it is known that shape is determinated by the cytoskeletal structure.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">In particular, the alga <i>Euglena gracilis </i>changes its shape two times per day under the effect of a daily light&#150;dark cycle. This alga has a long shape when there is a higher photosynthetic capacity at the half period of the day; on the contrary, it showed a rounded shape at the end of 24 h cycle.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Also, the influence of the cell shape changes on the photosynthetic reactions was investigated by altering them with drugs that disrupt the cytoskeletal structure as cytochalasin B and colchicine. Both inhibitors blocked the rhythmic shape changes and the photo&#150;synthetic rhythm.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Moreover, there are some reports about cytoskeletal changes in plants targeted by circadian rhythms. Guarda cells of <i>Vicia faba L. </i>showed a diurnal cycle on the alpha and beta tubulin levels.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">In addition, it has been proposed that melatonin synchronizes different body rhythms through cytoskeletal rearrangements. In culture cells, nanomolar melatonin concentrations cause an increase in both the polimerization rate and microtubule formation through calmodulin antagonism.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">A cyclic pattern produced by melatonin in the actin microfilament organization has been demonstrated in canine kidney cells. Cyclic incubation of MDCK cells with nanomolar concentrations of melatonin, resembling the cyclic pattern of secretion and release to plasma produces a microfilament reorganization and the formation of domes.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Studies in animals are controvertial regarding if the amount of microtubules in different tissues varies cyclically. In rats and baboons, melatonin administration or exposure of rats to darkness induced an increased number of microtubules in the pineal gland. However, in the hypothalamus, the exposure of rats to light resulted in an increase in the microtubular protein content. Similarly, (X&#150;tubulin mRNA was augmented during the light phase in the hypothalamus, hippocampus and cortex. By contrast, in rats maintained in constant darkness, a decreased level in the tubulin content was observed in the visual cortex.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Additional information on cycle variations observed in cytoskeletal molecules indicated that beta actin mRNA levels are lower during the day in the hippocampus and cortex. But no change was observed in actin protein levels in the cerebral cortex. However, increased levels of actin and its mRNA were observed in the hypothalamus. Exogenous melatonin administration at onset of night decreased the amount of actin in the hypothalamus, while the actin mRNA levels decreased when the administration was realized in the morning.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">In this review we will describe the synchronizer role of melatonin in the sleep&#150;awake cycle and in the organization of cytoskeletal proteins and their mRNAs. Also, we will describe alterations in the melatonin secretion rhythm associated with a neuronal cytoskeleton disorganization in the neuropsychiatric diseases such as Alzheimer, depression, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Key words:</b> Melatonin, neuropsychiatric diseases, circadian rhythms, microtubules, microfilaments.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Resumen</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los ritmos circadianos son patrones de oscilaci&oacute;n con un periodo cercano a 24h que se observan en los procesos fisiol&oacute;gicos. En los mam&iacute;feros se han descrito funciones biol&oacute;gicas con regulaci&oacute;n circ&aacute;dica tal como el ciclo sue&ntilde;o&#150;vigilia.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La administraci&oacute;n de la melatonina, una indolamina secretada por la gl&aacute;ndula pineal, sincroniza los ritmos circadianos. En los humanos, este efecto se ha estudiado en sujetos con s&iacute;ndrome de &lt;&lt;fase de retraso de sue&ntilde;o&gt;&gt;, personas que sufren el s&iacute;ndrome de <i>jet lag, </i>en los trabajadores nocturnos y en los invidentes. La melatonina puede reducir los s&iacute;ntomas de <i>jet lag y </i>mejorar la calidad del sue&ntilde;o, adem&aacute;s de acelerar la sincronizaci&oacute;n de la fase circadiana al tiempo local.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los niveles de la melatonina disminuyen con la edad y en las enfermedades neurodegenerativas y psiqui&aacute;tricas. Los pacientes con enfermedad de Alzheimer muestran alteraciones del sue&ntilde;o como cambios en su ritmicidad y en su estructura. La administraci&oacute;n de la melatonina a estos pacientes provoca mejor&iacute;a en los s&iacute;ntomas de agitaci&oacute;n que se presentan al atardecer. Los pacientes con trastorno bipolar manifiestan insomnio asociado con la fase de man&iacute;a e hipersomnia durante la fase de depresi&oacute;n. Estas alteraciones en el sue&ntilde;o se relacionan con un desfasamiento del ritmo circadiano y/o arritmia. En pacientes con depresi&oacute;n y con esquizofrenia existe una disminuci&oacute;n en los niveles plasm&aacute;ticos de la melatonina en ambas fases del ciclo luz&#150;oscuridad. La administraci&oacute;n de melatonina incrementa la eficiencia del sue&ntilde;o en ellos.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Adem&aacute;s de las alteraciones en el sue&ntilde;o y en el ritmo de secreci&oacute;n de la melatonina observado en pacientes neuropsiqui&aacute;tricos, existen cambios estructurales y funcionales en regiones espec&iacute;ficas cerebrales que son producidas por la p&eacute;rdida neuronal o por alteraciones de la polaridad y de la morfolog&iacute;a neuronal, que son funciones reguladas por el citoesqueleto. A pesar de la informaci&oacute;n que existe sobre el papel de la melatonina como un sincronizador de los ritmos biol&oacute;gicos, no se conoce si &eacute;sta sincroniza la citoarquitectura neuronal.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Est&aacute; descrito que en organismos unicelulares, en plantas y en especies de vertebrados, existen cambios r&iacute;tmicos en la organizaci&oacute;n del citoesqueleto asociados con el fotoperiodo. En c&eacute;lulas en cultivo la melatonina produce un aumento en la formaci&oacute;n de los microt&uacute;bulos. En roedores, la administraci&oacute;n de esta indolamina y la exposici&oacute;n a la oscuridad constante produce un incremento en el contenido de los microt&uacute;bulos en la gl&aacute;ndula pineal. Sin embargo la exposici&oacute;n constante a la luz, que inhibe la s&iacute;ntesis de la melatonina, produce un incremento en el contenido de los microt&uacute;bulos hipotal&aacute;micos, en tanto que el RNAm de &alpha;&#150;tubulina en el hipot&aacute;lamo, el hipocampo y la corteza cerebral, se incrementa durante el d&iacute;a.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La regulaci&oacute;n c&iacute;clica de la organizaci&oacute;n de los microfilament os de actina inducida por la melatonina se ha demostrado en c&eacute;lulas de ri&ntilde;&oacute;n en cultivo. La melatonina provoca un incremento en la reorganizaci&oacute;n de actina asociado con un aumento en la formaci&oacute;n de domos los cuales son un &iacute;ndice del transporte bidireccional de agua en las c&eacute;lulas epiteliales. En tanto que, en estudios en roedores, se ha observado que los niveles de RNAm de actina se incrementan durante la noche en el hipocampo y en la corteza. Sin embargo, otros estudios se&ntilde;alan que la melatonina tiene un efecto inhibitorio en la s&iacute;ntesis de actina en el hipot&aacute;lamo.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En esta revisi&oacute;n se describe el papel sincronizador de la melatonina en el ciclo sue&ntilde;o&#150;vigilia y en la estructura del citoesqueleto neuronal. Asimismo, se menciona c&oacute;mo en las enfermedades neuropsiqui&aacute;tricas el ritmo de secreci&oacute;n de la melatonina se encuentra alterado, lo cual se puede asociar con una desorganizaci&oacute;n del citoesqueleto neuronal.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Palabras clave: </b>Melatonina, enfermedades neuropsiqui&aacute;tricas, ritmos circadianos, microt&uacute;bulos, microfilamentos.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>INTRODUCCI&Oacute;N</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Las enfermedades neuropsiqui&aacute;tricas tales como la depresi&oacute;n mayor (DP), el trastorno bipolar (TB), la esquizofrenia cr&oacute;nica (EZ), la ansiedad, la enfermedad de Alzheimer (AZ) y la enfermedad de Parkinson, se caracterizan por mostrar un curso progresivo cr&oacute;nico degenerativo. Son enfermedades incapacitantes y causan alteraciones conductuales y en las relaciones interpersonales. Sus s&iacute;ntomas se han relacionado con perturbaciones en los ritmos circadianos tales como el ciclo sue&ntilde;o&#150;vigilia y el ciclo de secreci&oacute;n de la melatonina (5&#150;metoxi&#150;N&#150;acetiltriptamina; MEL), entre otros.<sup>1&#150;3</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Las perturbaciones de los ritmos biol&oacute;gicos en las enfermedades neurodegenerativas han propiciado la b&uacute;squeda de tratamientos alternativos y coadyuvantes para sincronizar estos ciclos y mejorar la calidad de vida de los pacientes y sus familiares.<sup>4</sup> En esta revisi&oacute;n se describen los conceptos b&aacute;sicos que definen a los ritmos circadianos as&iacute; como las evidencias que apoyan que la MEL es un cronobi&oacute;tico, un neuroprotector, un sincronizador del citoesqueleto (CSK) y su uso puede ser relevante en el tratamiento de las enfermedades psiqui&aacute;tricas.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>LOS RITMOS BIOL&Oacute;GICOS: CONCEPTOS B&Aacute;SICOS</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los ritmos circadianos (del lat&iacute;n <i>circa: </i>cerca y <i>diem: </i>d&iacute;a) son patrones de oscilaci&oacute;n observados en muchos procesos fisiol&oacute;gicos cuya caracter&iacute;stica principal es que presentan un per&iacute;odo cercano a las 24h y se piensa que surgieron de la adaptaci&oacute;n de los seres vivos a la variaci&oacute;n peri&oacute;dica de su ambiente.<sup>5</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La expresi&oacute;n de los ritmos circadianos depende de un conjunto de elementos estructurales que constituyen el sistema circadiano. Este sistema mantiene organizado temporalmente al organismo y le permite sincronizarse con una oscilaci&oacute;n ambiental o <i>Zeitgeber. </i>Uno de los <i>Zeitgeber </i>m&aacute;s potentes es el ciclo del d&iacute;a y de la noche.<sup>6</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En los mam&iacute;feros, las funciones biol&oacute;gicas expresadas circadicamente incluyen: el ciclo sue&ntilde;o&#150;vigilia, la s&iacute;ntesis y la liberaci&oacute;n hormonal (como el cortisol y la MEL) y la regulaci&oacute;n de la temperatura corporal, entre otras.<sup>7</sup> Las oscilaciones de estas funciones son generadas y organizadas por una estructura marcapaso o reloj circadiano: el n&uacute;cleo supraquiasm&aacute;tico (NSQ) localizado en el hipot&aacute;lamo. El NSQ mantiene sincronizado al organismo con su ambiente, en particular cuando se detecta como <i>Zeitgeber </i>el ciclo del d&iacute;a y la noche.<sup>8</sup> Para que este marcapaso sincronice al sistema circadiano con el d&iacute;a y la noche, la luz que es percibida por las c&eacute;lulas ganglionares fotosensibles de la retina, se transforma en impulsos nerviosos que llegan al NSQ. &Eacute;ste, a su vez, transmite la informaci&oacute;n de la duraci&oacute;n del d&iacute;a a los osciladores secundarios, en particular a la gl&aacute;ndula pineal<sup>9</sup> en donde se sintetiza la MEL durante la noche, por lo que se le ha llamado &lt;&lt;la hormona de la oscuridad&gt;&gt;.<sup>10</sup> La recepci&oacute;n de la MEL por receptores localizados en el NSQ o en los osciladores secundarios, retroalimenta la informaci&oacute;n del fotoperiodo enviada desde el NSQ y de esta forma se refuerza la sincronizaci&oacute;n del sistema circadiano.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>LA MELATONINA COMO UN CRONOBI&Oacute;TICO: IMPORTANCIA PARA LA PSIQUIATR&Iacute;A</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Un efecto cronobi&oacute;tico significa que un compuesto qu&iacute;mico administrado de manera ex&oacute;gena es capaz de influir en la sincronizaci&oacute;n del reloj o marcapaso circadiano.<sup>11 </sup>Este efecto sobre el reloj se puede observar indirectamente midiendo los ritmos que son controlados por el marcapaso circadiano. Por ejemplo, en roedores mantenidos en ausencia de un <i>Zeitgeber, </i>la administraci&oacute;n diaria de MEL sincroniza el ritmo end&oacute;geno de secreci&oacute;n de la indolamina misma y el ritmo circadiano de la actividad locomotora.<sup>12</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En los seres humanos, el efecto de la MEL como cronobi&oacute;tico se demostr&oacute; en el trastorno del <i>jet lag. </i>&Eacute;ste se produce por la desincronizaci&oacute;n del reloj circadiano respecto del fotoperiodo cuando se realiza un viaje transmeridiano, lo que repercute principalmente en el ritmo sue&ntilde;o&#150;vigilia. Los s&iacute;ntomas caracter&iacute;sticos del <i>jet lag </i>son la presencia de insomnio durante la noche y la excesiva somnolencia durante la vigilia, adem&aacute;s de malestar gastrointestinal, cefaleas y mareos intermitentes.<sup>13</sup> Estos s&iacute;ntomas se presentan durante los d&iacute;as que tarda el reloj en resincronizarse con el nuevo tiempo local. La administraci&oacute;n de la MEL acelera la resincronizaci&oacute;n del reloj circadiano, reduciendo la intensidad y el tiempo en el que se presentan los s&iacute;ntomas del <i>jet lag.<sup>14,15</sup></i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El efecto de la MEL como cronobi&oacute;tico se ha demostrado tambi&eacute;n en las personas de la tercera edad y en los pacientes con enfermedades neuropsiqui&aacute;tricas. En estas personas el nivel circulante de la MEL est&aacute; disminuido lo que genera alteraciones en el reloj biol&oacute;gico,<sup>2</sup> que se reflejan en particular en el ritmo sue&ntilde;o&#150;vigilia.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En los pacientes con la enfermedad de AZ, TB, DP y EZ cr&oacute;nica, los niveles circulantes de la MEL tambi&eacute;n est&aacute;n disminuidos<sup>16&#150;18</sup> y se han descrito alteraciones en distintos ritmos circadianos como en el de la temperatura corporal, el estado de &aacute;nimo y en el ritmo sue&ntilde;o&#150;vigilia.<sup>2,19&#150;22 </sup>Se ha observado que la administraci&oacute;n c&iacute;clica de la MEL a estos pacientes incrementa la eficiencia del sue&ntilde;o mejorando las alteraciones en el ciclo sue&ntilde;o&#150;vigilia.<sup>23&#150;26</sup></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>ALTERACIONES ESTRUCTURALES DEL SISTEMA NERVIOSO CENTRAL EN ENFERMEDADES NEUROPSIQUI&Aacute;TRICAS: DEFICIENCIAS EN LA ORGANIZACI&Oacute;N DEL CITOESQUELETO</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En las enfermedades psiqui&aacute;tricas, adem&aacute;s de las alteraciones en el ritmo de secreci&oacute;n de la MEL y en el del sue&ntilde;o&#150;vigilia, se han descrito modificaciones estructurales y funcionales en regiones espec&iacute;ficas del Sistema Nervioso Central (SNC). Estas alteraciones se han asociado con deficiencias en la organizaci&oacute;n del CSK.<sup>27</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En estudios de im&aacute;genes generadas por resonancia magn&eacute;tica del SNC de pacientes con DP, TB, EZ, se ha encontrado una disminuci&oacute;n en el volumen de estructuras como la corteza (Cx) prefrontal, la Cx temporal, la Cx orbitofrontal, el cerebelo, los ganglios basales y el sistema l&iacute;mbico.<sup>28,29</sup> Estas alteraciones anat&oacute;micas se han establecido a partir de estudios histol&oacute;gicos. En &eacute;stos se demostr&oacute; una disminuci&oacute;n del tama&ntilde;o de las neuronas de estas estructuras, en particular una disminuci&oacute;n en la longitud de las dendritas y en el n&uacute;mero de las espinas dendr&iacute;ticas.<sup>30&#150;33 </sup>Se ha sugerido que las alteraciones estructurales del SNC descritas en los pacientes con EZ, TB, DP y AZ se producen por la alteraci&oacute;n en la polaridad y la morfolog&iacute;a neuronal que es establecida por el CSK.<sup>34</sup> Por ejemplo, las alteraciones en el CSK producidas por una fosforilaci&oacute;n excesiva de la prote&iacute;na tau que se presenta en la enfermedad de AZ y en otras demencias conocidas como taupat&iacute;as, origina la desorganizaci&oacute;n del CSK con la consecuente p&eacute;rdida de la polaridad morfofuncional. Adem&aacute;s la prote&iacute;na tau que se asocia al CSK se fosforila en exceso y como consecuencia se ensambla en filamentos helicoidales apareados.<sup>35</sup> La tau hiperfosforilada causa la inhibici&oacute;n y la ruptura de los microt&uacute;bulos (MT),<sup>36</sup> lo cual resulta en la inhibici&oacute;n del flujo axopl&aacute;smico y causa la p&eacute;rdida de las sin&aacute;psis y la cognici&oacute;n.<sup>37</sup> Por otro lado, en la EZ se ha observado un decremento de MAP2 (por sus siglas en ingl&eacute;s <i>Microtubule associated proteins </i>MAPs) en la Cx prefrontal, as&iacute; como un decremento de MAP2 y MAP1B en el sub&iacute;culum y la Cx entorrinal de la formaci&oacute;n hipocampal.<sup>38</sup> Estas prote&iacute;nas tambi&eacute;n se asocian a los microt&uacute;bulos y al igual que la tau participan en la estabilizaci&oacute;n de su estructura.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>LA MELATONINA MODULA LA ORGANIZACI&Oacute;N DEL CITOESQUELETO DE LAS NEURONAS</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La MEL, adem&aacute;s de participar en la sincronizaci&oacute;n del sistema circadiano y de funcionar como un cronobi&oacute;tico, es un modulador de la organizaci&oacute;n del CSK neuronal; su aplicaci&oacute;n aumenta la formaci&oacute;n y alargamiento de nuevas neuritas (para una revisi&oacute;n completa ver: Ben&iacute;tez&#150;King).<sup>39</sup> La MEL tambi&eacute;n act&uacute;a como un neuroprotector porque su estructura le permite atrapar radicales libres,<sup>40 </sup>evitando la desestabilizaci&oacute;n del CSK y la reducci&oacute;n del tama&ntilde;o de las neuritas.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El efecto modulador de la MEL sobre el CSK fue demostrado en c&eacute;lulas en cultivo de origen neuronal. La MEL induce rearreglos de los microfilamentos (MF) durante la neuritog&eacute;nesis temprana ya que incrementa el n&uacute;mero de c&eacute;lulas con conos de crecimiento, filipodios y principalmente de neuritas largas.<sup>41</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los efectos neuroprotectores de la MEL se han observado en modelos de neurodegeneraci&oacute;n <i>in vitro. </i>El &aacute;cido ocad&aacute;ico (AO) es una neurotoxina que produce alteraciones en el CSK e incrementa el estr&eacute;s oxidativo de modo semejante a lo que ocurre en pacientes con taupat&iacute;as.<sup>42</sup> En c&eacute;lulas N1E&#150;115, la administraci&oacute;n de MEL antes de la adici&oacute;n del AO previene la retracci&oacute;n del CSK alrededor del n&uacute;cleo, manteni&eacute;ndolo en el citoplasma y en las neuritas. Adem&aacute;s,    la   MEL    inhibe    el    incremento    en    la lipoperoxidaci&oacute;n inducida por el AO<sup>43</sup> y previene la hiperfosforilaci&oacute;n de la prote&iacute;na tau causada por este compuesto.<sup>44</sup> Asimismo, la MEL restaura la extensi&oacute;n de los MT, los conos de crecimiento y las microespigas, en c&eacute;lulas da&ntilde;adas por las especies reactivas de ox&iacute;geno generadas con el per&oacute;xido de hidr&oacute;geno.<sup>45</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>LA MELATONINA COMO UN SINCRONIZADOR DE LA ORGANIZACI&Oacute;N DEL CITOESQUELETO</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Existen evidencias que indican que la organizaci&oacute;n del CSK en c&eacute;lulas neuronales y no neuronales var&iacute;a de forma circ&aacute;dica y de que la MEL podr&iacute;a participar en la sincronizaci&oacute;n de este ritmo.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los experimentos que se han publicado acerca de los cambios circadianos en la estructura del CSK se han realizado principalmente en plantas,<sup>46</sup> en algas<sup>47</sup> y en los mam&iacute;feros se ha demostrado en un modelo epitelial en cultivo que se origin&oacute; de un ri&ntilde;&oacute;n de perro (c&eacute;lulas MDCK). La administraci&oacute;n c&iacute;clica de MEL en los cultivos de c&eacute;lulas MDCK induce el rearreglo r&iacute;tmico de los MF<sup>48</sup> asociado con un incremento en la formaci&oacute;n de domos y en el transporte vectorial de agua.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En modelos animales tambi&eacute;n se ha demostrado que el arreglo del CSK neuronal tiene una variaci&oacute;n circadiana y que la MEL participa en la sincronizaci&oacute;n de este ritmo. En el hipocampo de ratas mantenidas en ciclos de luz&#150;oscuridad (LO) y que tienen un patr&oacute;n circ&aacute;dico de secreci&oacute;n de MEL, se observ&oacute; un incremento de los niveles de actina (ACT) organizada en MF durante la noche, mientras que la tubulina (TUB) organizada en MT no se modific&oacute;. Recientemente, con el objeto de dilucidar si las variaciones observadas en la organizaci&oacute;n de los MT y los MF de ACT de hipocampo de rata estaban relacionadas con los niveles de MEL plasm&aacute;tica circulante, se midi&oacute; la cantidad de MT y MF, en ratas mantenidas en LO a las que les fue extirpada la gl&aacute;ndula pineal para abolir los niveles de MEL plasm&aacute;tica, sin perder la actividad del NSQ ni la influencia del <i>Zeitgeber.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En las ratas pinealectomizadas, los MF y los MT se incrementaron dos semanas despu&eacute;s de la pinealectom&iacute;a, en tanto que 12 semanas despu&eacute;s se observ&oacute; un decremento en la cantidad de los MF y los MT. La ausencia cr&oacute;nica de la MEL no tan s&oacute;lo afect&oacute; la variaci&oacute;n diaria de la organizaci&oacute;n del CSK, sino que origin&oacute; la disminuci&oacute;n de la TUB y la ACT organizada en MT y MF por debajo de los niveles m&iacute;nimos observados durante la variaci&oacute;n diaria.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Con el fin de determinar si la administraci&oacute;n de la MEL restablec&iacute;a el patr&oacute;n de organizaci&oacute;n de los MT y los MF en el hipocampo, se inyect&oacute; esta indolamina (1 mg/kg i.p.) durante una semana a ratas pinealectomizadas mantenidas en LO. Despu&eacute;s de 6 h de la &uacute;ltima administraci&oacute;n de MEL, se observ&oacute; un incremento tanto de la ACT como de la TUB organizada en MF y MT. En contraste, en las ratas pinealectomizadas que fueron tratadas con el veh&iacute;culo, los MF y los MT se mantuvieron disminuidos.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El patr&oacute;n circadiano observado en la variaci&oacute;n de la ACT y la TUB depende del tejido que sea estudiado. Por ejemplo, la cantidad de ACT se incrementa en el hipocampo durante la noche as&iacute; como con la administraci&oacute;n de la MEL, mientras que en el hipot&aacute;lamo la ACT aumenta durante el d&iacute;a<sup>49</sup> y la aplicaci&oacute;n de MEL la disminuye.<sup>50</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Adem&aacute;s de la variaci&oacute;n c&iacute;clica de la ACT y la TUB, tambi&eacute;n se han observado cambios en los niveles de sus RNAm relacionados con el ciclo LO. En el hipot&aacute;lamo, el hipocampo y la Cx cerebral de ratas, el RNAm de TUB se increment&oacute; durante la ma&ntilde;ana,<sup>51</sup> periodo en el que la concentraci&oacute;n de MEL circulante es menor (<a href="#f1">figura 1</a>). El patr&oacute;n de variaci&oacute;n del RNAm de ACT tambi&eacute;n depende del tejido estudiado. Por ejemplo, sus niveles se incrementan en el hipocampo y en la Cx durante la noche,<sup>52</sup> aunque en el hipot&aacute;lamo se incrementa en el d&iacute;a<sup>49</sup> en tanto que la aplicaci&oacute;n de MEL provoca su disminuci&oacute;n (<a href="#f2">figura 2</a>).<sup>50</sup></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><a name="f1"></a></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><img src="/img/revistas/sm/v34n2/a10f1.jpg"></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><a name="f2"></a></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><img src="/img/revistas/sm/v34n2/a10f2.jpg"></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Las implicaciones de las variaciones c&iacute;clicas de la expresi&oacute;n de prote&iacute;nas del neurocitoesqueleto son cruciales para la fisiolog&iacute;a cerebral. El v&iacute;nculo existente entre la oscilaci&oacute;n circadiana de los niveles de MEL con el ciclo de LO, se refleja en los cambios observados en los niveles de RNAm y de prote&iacute;nas tanto de ACT como de TUB. Sin embargo, las variaciones tienen un comportamiento distinto en diferentes estructuras del cerebro lo que podr&iacute;a implicar que la morfofuncionalidad de las c&eacute;lulas presentes es totalmente distinta.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Las neuronas, que son c&eacute;lulas asim&eacute;tricas y polarizadas, necesitan poseer un dinamismo estructural que permita la formaci&oacute;n de axones y dendritas para mantener la comunicaci&oacute;n sin&aacute;ptica entre ellas. La evidencia mencionada apoya que existe un rearreglo constante del CSK, donde los niveles elevados de ACT durante la noche por acci&oacute;n de la MEL podr&iacute;an generar o reforzar los contactos sin&aacute;pticos, en tanto que la cantidad elevada de TUB durante el d&iacute;a podr&iacute;a referirse a una estabilizaci&oacute;n de estas conexiones sin&aacute;pticas mediante la formaci&oacute;n de MT. M&aacute;s adelante, esta estabilidad de MT y MF tambi&eacute;n podr&iacute;a reforzarse por prote&iacute;nas asociadas al CSK que intervendr&iacute;an en la plasticidad sin&aacute;ptica para generar una modificaci&oacute;n de la circuiteria cerebral.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>CONCLUSIONES</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La evidencia acumulada a la fecha indica que la MEL act&uacute;a como un cronobi&oacute;tico, un neuroprotector y un modulador del CSK neuronal. Adem&aacute;s, la evidencia presentada aqu&iacute; sugiere que la disminuci&oacute;n de los niveles de la hormona podr&iacute;a estar relacionada con alteraciones del CSK neuronal que se observan en las enfermedades neuropsiqui&aacute;tricas. Asimismo, se ha descrito que los transtornos del sue&ntilde;o y los cambios en el estado de &aacute;nimo que se presentan en estas enfermedades podr&iacute;an estar relacionados con una disfunci&oacute;n del reloj biol&oacute;gico que interfiere con los ritmos circadianos de la MEL. Este concepto es sustentado por experimentos en los que se demostr&oacute; que la privaci&oacute;n de sue&ntilde;o inhibe las concentraciones de la MEL y la cantidad de espinas dendr&iacute;ticas en el hipocampo. Estos datos sugieren que la MEL puede ser utilizada como un coadyuvante en el tratamiento de las enfermedades neuropsiqui&aacute;tricas ya que podr&iacute;a promover la formaci&oacute;n de los contactos sin&aacute;pticos adem&aacute;s de sincronizar el ciclo sue&ntilde;o&#150;vigilia en estos pacientes.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>REFERENCIAS</b></font></p>     ]]></body>
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