<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0185-3325</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Salud mental]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Salud Ment]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0185-3325</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0185-33252008000200009</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Deficiencias mnésicas, ejecutivas y atencionales como endofenotipos neurocognitivos en el trastorno bipolar: una revisión]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Mnemonic, executive and attentional deficits as neurocognitive endophenotypes in bipolar disorder: A review]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Castañeda Franco]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Marisol]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Tirado Durán]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Elsa]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente. Dirección de Servicios Clínicos. Unidad de Neuropsicología.]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2008</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2008</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>31</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<fpage>145</fpage>
<lpage>150</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0185-33252008000200009&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0185-33252008000200009&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0185-33252008000200009&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[Although many studies have demonstrated that bipolar disorder (BD) is heritable, the disorder's genetic basis remains elusive despite the substantial evidence. Hence, indicators of processes mediating between genotype and phenotype, known as endophenotypes, may be necessary to provide more information about this issue. Given that endophenotypes could provide information for elucidating the genetic underpinnings of BD, many studies have focused on one class of endophenotypic marker, the neuropsychological measures. In order for a cognitive measure to be considered an endophenotype, it has to 1. be highly heritable, 2. be associated with the illness, 3. be independent of the clinical state and, 4. the impairment must co-segregate with the illness within a family, with non-affected family members showing impairment relative to general population. In this sense, failures in attention, executive functions and verbal memory are the most consistently reported deficits with the characteristics for endophenotypes. With these factors in mind, the primary interest of this paper was to review the existing literature on neurocognitive functioning in BD as possible endophenotypes. Studies were identified by searching the major databases (MEDLINE and PSYCINFO) from 1990 to 2007 with the following key words: endophenotype, neurocognitive assessment, bipolar disorder, attention, memory, executive functions, neuropsychological assessment and neuroimaging. The titles and abstracts of the articles identified were examined and those that appeared to fullfil our inclusion criteria were retrieved. Articles were included if they met the following criteria: 1. included adult patients (aged: 16-65), 2. included a psychiatric or normal comparison group, 3. used well-established diagnostic criteria to ascertain diagnosis (DSM, 3rd. and 4th. eds.), 4. provided information about the clinical status of the patients being assessmed and 5. cognitive assessment was based on standardized or well established cognitive tasks. Declarative memory has been studied in BD patients through tests that imply learning of words and stories to evaluate immediate memory, delayed recall and recognition, also considering the kind of strategies that the patients use to evoke verbal material. It seems that BD patients in depressive phase present deficits in immediate memory and delayed recall, but recognition memory is preserved. This impairment is due to difficulties in the planning and evoking strategies used, associated to prefrontal dysfunction. In manic phase, the patients make a lot of irrelevant associations because the failure in the system to control impulses. In the absence of the depressive and maniac symptoms, patients continue with anomalies in memory. Euthymic patient can use a similar semantic clustering strategy so that they can recall and recognize fewer words than controls, suggesting impaired encoding of verbal information and there is lack of rapid forgetting, which suggests a relative absence of a storage deficit. Results of studies in declarative memory impairment in BD suggests that the impairments are consistent with deficits in learning, but do not appear to be related to different organizational strategies during learning, and do not appear to be secondary to clinical state. Rather, they are associated with the underlying pathophysiology of the illness. Regarding executive functions, patients with BD have deficiencies related to planning, organizational strategies, lack of control in the action, conceptual formation and cognitive flexibility. In depressive phase, patients have problems with concept formation, meanwhile the deficit in verbal fluency is due because they use phonemic rather than semantic clues. In maniac episodes, the executive functions are altered, and it is observed that concept formation and attentional shift are deficient and more evident in patients with a history of psychosis. These deficits explain why maniac persons engage in more risk behaviors, specifically in the inhibiting impulses system. Also in the absence of symptoms, euthymic bipolar disorder patients show no significant differences with respect to controls on attentional set-shifting, problem solving or planning. However, they show qualitative differences involving slower functioning on measures of speed and slower to initiate a response, and present more errors across measures of verbal fluency. With respect to attentional deficits in BD, several studies have pointed to deficits in sustained attention, also known as concentration, related to the capability to sustain the focus during a considerable amount of time. This attentional domain is deficient in manic patients because the lack of behavioral inhibition which is prevalent in this phase, the increased false responding (commission errors), perseveration and vigilance deficits. In contrast, when patients are depressive, they make more mistakes by omission of relevant stimuli. Also in euthymic patients, a deficit in the inattentive component of sustained attention is reported because of decreased target sensitivity (omission errors) and response time inconsistency. It is possible that the observed findings do not reflect dysfunction in one isolated brain area, rather a dysregulation of cortical modulation of subcortical networks is considered. In particular, a neuroanatomic model of mood regulation comprising the prefrontal cortex, amygdala-hippocampal complex, thalamus, basal ganglia, and their inter-connections has been proposed to be implicated in the pathophysiology of mood disorders. Functional neuroimaging studies also support evidence of these neurocognitive anomalies through the application of neuropsychological paradigms, in which metabolic increments in ventral striate and diminished function in prefrontal cortex during executives assignments is common. During maniac or hypomaniac episodes, an increment of activity in the ventral prefrontal cortex of the right hemisphere was observed; meanwhile, in depressive phase the patients show an increase in the same sector but in the left hemisphere compared to euthymic patients. During the depressive episodes of the BD type II, it is observed a reduction of the dorsolateral and medial prefrontal cortex metabolism, and an increase in thalamus and amygdala while resolving cognitive activities. Finally, there is a reduction of metabolism in ventral caudal and prefrontal cortex and an increase in amygdala in patients without depressive or maniac symptoms. This finding supports the hypothesis of permanent prefrontal dysfunction although the absence of clinical symptoms. Finally, as Glahn et al. (2004) have suggested, neurocognitive markers may indicate the presence of quantifiable deviation on a genetically influenced dimension that underlies BD. Such endophenotypes would not identify illness genes per se; rather they would indicate a realiably characterized heritable behavioral phenomenon. Nevertheless, at present it is not known which of the many candidate genes for BD may be associated with neurocognitive endophenotypes for the disorder. Some studies have reported promising preliminary findings indicating a relationship between executive performance and a brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene polymorphism. Given that this gene has been implicated in memory and learning as a function of its role in synaptic transmission, and other genetic association studies have linked this gene to risk for BD, allelic variation in this gene may be associated with cognitive dysfunction in BD.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[En los últimos años se ha planteado la necesidad de identificar los procesos que median entre el genotipo y el fenotipo del Trastorno Bipolar (TB), dando importancia al estudio de los endofenotipos. Los endofenotipos tratan del fenotipo interno y que no se observa clínicamente, que se encuentra mas cercano a la etiología biológica de la enfermedad que sus signos y síntomas, y que se encuentra influenciado por uno o más genes susceptibles al trastorno. Para que un marcador pueda ser considerado como endofenotipo debe cubrir las siguientes características: 1) ser heredable, 2) estar asociado con la enfermedad, 3) ser independiente del estado clínico y 4) mostrar co-segregación familiar. Dentro de los métodos disponibles para identificar a los endofenotipos se encuentran las mediciones neuropsicológicas y cognitivas entre otras. Diversos autores han señalado la utilidad de identificar los endofenotipos neurocognitivos del TB para mejorar la capacidad de detección de los genes que predisponen a la aparición del trastorno y ayudar a una mejor definición de los criterios diagnósticos. En este sentido, se han señalado a las alteraciones en los dominios de atención selectiva, memoria verbal y funciones ejecutivas, como marcadores endofenotípicos más representativos del TB porque cumplen con los criterios antes mencionados. Por lo tanto, en el presente artículo se realizó una revisión de los estudios neuropsicológicos reportados en pacientes con TB en estos dominios cognitivos y la descripción de estas deficiencias, así como de los circuitos neuronales asociados con estas alteraciones. Se realizó una búsqueda de artículos en MEDLINE y psycINFO desde 1990 a 2007 con las siguientes palabras clave: endofenotipo, evaluación neuropsicológica, trastorno bipolar, atención, memoria, funciones ejecutivas, neurocognición y neuroimagen. Los títulos y resúmenes de los artículos identificados fueron examinados y se conservaron aquellos que cubrían nuestros criterios de inclusión. Los artículos se tomaron en cuenta si cubrían los siguientes criterios: 1) incluían pacientes adultos (edad: 16-65), 2) incluían un grupo de comparación psiquiátrico o normal, 3) utilizaban criterios diagnósticos bien establecidos para el diagnóstico (DSM 3ª. y 4ª. eds.), 4) describían información sobre el estado clínico del paciente al momento de la evaluación y 5) utilizaban evaluaciones cognitivas con tareas estandarizadas y bien establecidas. En relación a la memoria declarativa, los pacientes en un episodio depresivo muestran alteraciones en las pruebas de aprendizaje y de memoria de listas de palabras en las variables de recuerdo libre, tanto a corto como a largo plazo; estas subyacen a deficiencias en la planeación y en la memoria operativa o de trabajo, mismas que persisten después de la fase aguda de cualquier etapa de este padecimiento. Durante la manía se observa un pobre desempeño caracterizado por intrusiones y asociaciones verbales irrelevantes. Se ha señalado que durante la eutimia existen deficiencias asociadas con fallas en la codificación de la información y que no se deben al olvido o a deficiencias en su almacenamiento. Las evaluaciones que se han realizado de las funciones ejecutivas, coinciden al señalar incapacidad para planear, organizar y controlar la conducta en las fases depresivas y de manía/hipomanía, mientras que en la eutimia los pacientes únicamente muestran diferencias cualitativas en comparación con los sujetos sanos, caracterizadas por fallas ante tareas de fluidez verbal semántica y enlentecimiento en la velocidad de procesamiento. Con respecto a la atención selectiva, ha sido posible identificar que los pacientes con manía/hipomanía fallan porque presentan mayor cantidad de errores de comisión, asociado con impulsividad y deficiencias en la autorregulación; por otra parte, durante la fase depresiva se observa incapacidad para responder a estímulos importantes y mayor presencia de errores de omisión. Durante la eutimia, se encuentra alterado el componente de inatención debido a que obtienen menores puntajes en la detección del estímulo y requieren mayor tiempo de reacción. Los hallazgos neuropsicológicos antes descritos parecen reflejar la disregulación en la modulación cortical de las redes subcorticales, particularmente en el circuito que implica a la corteza prefrontal, al complejo amígdala-hipocampal, el tálamo, los ganglios basales y sus interconexiones; circuito que ha sido propuesto como un modelo neuroanatómico de la regulación afectiva. Además de la disregulación en este circuito, parecen estar involucradas disfunciones en los sectores laterales del lóbulo temporal durante las fases de manía/hipomanía.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Endophenotype]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[neurocognitive assessment]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[bipolar disorder]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[attention]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[memory]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[executive functions]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[neuropsychological assessment]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[neuroimaging]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Endofenotipo]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[evaluación neuropsicológica]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[trastorno bipolar]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[atención]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[memoria]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[funciones ejecutivas]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[neurocognición]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[neuroimagen]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[ <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="4">Actualizaci&oacute;n por temas</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="4"><b>Deficiencias mn&eacute;sicas, ejecutivas y atencionales como endofenotipos neurocognitivos en el trastorno bipolar: una revisi&oacute;n</b></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="3"><b>Mnemonic, executive and attentional deficits as neurocognitive endophenotypes in bipolar disorder: A review</b></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Marisol Casta&ntilde;eda Franco,<sup>1 * </sup>Elsa Tirado Dur&aacute;n,<sup>1</sup></b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i><sup>1 </sup>Unidad de Neuropsicolog&iacute;a. Direcci&oacute;n de Servicios Cl&iacute;nicos. Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatr&iacute;a Ram&oacute;n de la Fuente.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b><sup>*</sup>Correspondencia:</b>    <br>     <i>Psic. Marisol Casta&ntilde;eda Franco.    <br>     Unidad de Neuropsicolog&iacute;a.    <br>     Direcci&oacute;n de Servicios Cl&iacute;nicos,    <br>     Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatr&iacute;a Ram&oacute;n de la Fuente.    <br>     Calz. M&eacute;xico&#150;Xochimilco 101,    <br> San Lorenzo Huipulco, Tlalpan,     <br> 14370, M&eacute;xico, D.F.    <br> Tel: 56&#150;55&#150;28&#150;11 (ext.564).    <br> E&#150;mail:</i> <a href="mailto:castaneda@imp.edu.mx">castaneda@imp.edu.mx</a></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Recibido primera versi&oacute;n: 20 de septiembre de 2006.    <br>   Segunda versi&oacute;n: 15 de noviembre de 2007.    <br> Aceptado: 15 de enero de 2008.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Abstract</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Although many studies have demonstrated that bipolar disorder (BD) is heritable, the disorder's genetic basis remains elusive despite the substantial evidence. Hence, indicators of processes mediating between genotype and phenotype, known as endophenotypes, may be necessary to provide more information about this issue.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Given that endophenotypes could provide information for elucidating the genetic underpinnings of BD, many studies have focused on one class of endophenotypic marker, the neuropsychological measures. In order for a cognitive measure to be considered an endophenotype, it has to 1. be highly heritable, 2. be associated with the illness, 3. be independent of the clinical state and, 4. the impairment must co&#150;segregate with the illness within a family, with non&#150;affected family members showing impairment relative to general population.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">In this sense, failures in attention, executive functions and verbal memory are the most consistently reported deficits with the characteristics for endophenotypes. With these factors in mind, the primary interest of this paper was to review the existing literature on neurocognitive functioning in BD as possible endophenotypes.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Studies were identified by searching the major databases (MEDLINE and PSYCINFO) from 1990 to 2007 with the following key words: endophenotype, neurocognitive assessment, bipolar disorder, attention, memory, executive functions, neuropsychological assessment and neuroimaging. The titles and abstracts of the articles identified were examined and those that appeared to fullfil our inclusion criteria were retrieved. Articles were included if they met the following criteria: 1. included adult patients (aged: 16&#150;65), 2. included a psychiatric or normal comparison group, 3. used well&#150;established diagnostic criteria to ascertain diagnosis (DSM, 3<sup>rd.</sup> and 4<sup>th.</sup> eds.), 4. provided information about the clinical status of the patients being assessmed and 5. cognitive assessment was based on standardized or well established cognitive tasks.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Declarative memory has been studied in BD patients through tests that imply learning of words and stories to evaluate immediate memory, delayed recall and recognition, also considering the kind of strategies that the patients use to evoke verbal material.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">It seems that BD patients in depressive phase present deficits in immediate memory and delayed recall, but recognition memory is preserved. This impairment is due to difficulties in the planning and evoking strategies used, associated to prefrontal dysfunction. In manic phase, the patients make a lot of irrelevant associations because the failure in the system to control impulses. In the absence of the depressive and maniac symptoms, patients continue with anomalies in memory. Euthymic patient can use a similar semantic clustering strategy so that they can recall and recognize fewer words than controls, suggesting impaired encoding of verbal information and there is lack of rapid forgetting, which suggests a relative absence of a storage deficit. Results of studies in declarative memory impairment in BD suggests that the impairments are consistent with deficits in learning, but do not appear to be related to different organizational strategies during learning, and do not appear to be secondary to clinical state. Rather, they are associated with the underlying pathophysiology of the illness.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Regarding executive functions, patients with BD have deficiencies related to planning, organizational strategies, lack of control in the action, conceptual formation and cognitive flexibility. In depressive phase, patients have problems with concept formation, meanwhile the deficit in verbal fluency is due because they use phonemic rather than semantic clues.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">In maniac episodes, the executive functions are altered, and it is observed that concept formation and attentional shift are deficient and more evident in patients with a history of psychosis. These deficits explain why maniac persons engage in more risk behaviors, specifically in the inhibiting impulses system. Also in the absence of symptoms, euthymic bipolar disorder patients show no significant differences with respect to controls on attentional set&#150;shifting, problem solving or planning. However, they show qualitative differences involving slower functioning on measures of speed and slower to initiate a response, and present more errors across measures of verbal fluency.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">With respect to attentional deficits in BD, several studies have pointed to deficits in sustained attention, also known as concentration, related to the capability to sustain the focus during a considerable amount of time. This attentional domain is deficient in manic patients because the lack of behavioral inhibition which is prevalent in this phase, the increased false responding (commission errors), perseveration and vigilance deficits. In contrast, when patients are depressive, they make more mistakes by omission of relevant stimuli. Also in euthymic patients, a deficit in the inattentive component of sustained attention is reported because of decreased target sensitivity (omission errors) and response time inconsistency.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">It is possible that the observed findings do not reflect dysfunction in one isolated brain area, rather a dysregulation of cortical modulation of subcortical networks is considered. In particular, a neuroanatomic model of mood regulation comprising the prefrontal cortex, amygdala&#150;hippocampal complex, thalamus, basal ganglia, and their inter&#150;connections has been proposed to be implicated in the pathophysiology of mood disorders.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Functional neuroimaging studies also support evidence of these neurocognitive anomalies through the application of neuropsychological paradigms, in which metabolic increments in ventral striate and diminished function in prefrontal cortex during executives assignments is common. During maniac or hypomaniac episodes, an increment of activity in the ventral prefrontal cortex of the right hemisphere was observed; meanwhile, in depressive phase the patients show an increase in the same sector but in the left hemisphere compared to euthymic patients. During the depressive episodes of the BD type II, it is observed a reduction of the dorsolateral and medial prefrontal cortex metabolism, and an increase in thalamus and amygdala while resolving cognitive activities. Finally, there is a reduction of metabolism in ventral caudal and prefrontal cortex and an increase in amygdala in patients without depressive or maniac symptoms. This finding supports the hypothesis of permanent prefrontal dysfunction although the absence of clinical symptoms.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Finally, as Glahn et al. (2004) have suggested, neurocognitive markers may indicate the presence of quantifiable deviation on a genetically influenced dimension that underlies BD. Such endophenotypes would not identify illness genes per se; rather they would indicate a realiably characterized heritable behavioral phenomenon. Nevertheless, at present it is not known which of the many candidate genes for BD may be associated with neurocognitive endophenotypes for the disorder. Some studies have reported promising preliminary findings indicating a relationship between executive performance and a brain&#150;derived neurotrophic factor gene polymorphism. Given that this gene has been implicated in memory and learning as a function of its role in synaptic transmission, and other genetic association studies have linked this gene to risk for BD, allelic variation in this gene may be associated with cognitive dysfunction in BD.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Key words</b>: Endophenotype, neurocognitive assessment, bipolar disorder, attention, memory, executive functions, neuropsychological assessment, neuroimaging.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Resumen</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En los &uacute;ltimos a&ntilde;os se ha planteado la necesidad de identificar los procesos que median entre el genotipo y el fenotipo del Trastorno Bipolar (TB), dando importancia al estudio de los endofenotipos.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los endofenotipos tratan del fenotipo interno y que no se observa cl&iacute;nicamente, que se encuentra mas cercano a la etiolog&iacute;a biol&oacute;gica de la enfermedad que sus signos y s&iacute;ntomas, y que se encuentra influenciado por uno o m&aacute;s genes susceptibles al trastorno. Para que un marcador pueda ser considerado como endofenotipo debe cubrir las siguientes caracter&iacute;sticas: 1) ser heredable, 2) estar asociado con la enfermedad, 3) ser independiente del estado cl&iacute;nico y 4) mostrar co&#150;segregaci&oacute;n familiar. Dentro de los m&eacute;todos disponibles para identificar a los endofenotipos se encuentran las mediciones neuropsicol&oacute;gicas y cognitivas entre otras.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Diversos autores han se&ntilde;alado la utilidad de identificar los endofenotipos neurocognitivos del TB para mejorar la capacidad de detecci&oacute;n de los genes que predisponen a la aparici&oacute;n del trastorno y ayudar a una mejor definici&oacute;n de los criterios diagn&oacute;sticos.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En este sentido, se han se&ntilde;alado a las alteraciones en los dominios de atenci&oacute;n selectiva, memoria verbal y funciones ejecutivas, como marcadores endofenot&iacute;picos m&aacute;s representativos del TB porque cumplen con los criterios antes mencionados.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Por lo tanto, en el presente art&iacute;culo se realiz&oacute; una revisi&oacute;n de los estudios neuropsicol&oacute;gicos reportados en pacientes con TB en estos dominios cognitivos y la descripci&oacute;n de estas deficiencias, as&iacute; como de los circuitos neuronales asociados con estas alteraciones. Se realiz&oacute; una b&uacute;squeda de art&iacute;culos en MEDLINE y psycINFO desde 1990 a 2007 con las siguientes palabras clave: endofenotipo, evaluaci&oacute;n neuropsicol&oacute;gica, trastorno bipolar, atenci&oacute;n, memoria, funciones ejecutivas, neurocognici&oacute;n y neuroimagen. Los t&iacute;tulos y res&uacute;menes de los art&iacute;culos identificados fueron examinados y se conservaron aquellos que cubr&iacute;an nuestros criterios de inclusi&oacute;n. Los art&iacute;culos se tomaron en cuenta si cubr&iacute;an los siguientes criterios: 1) inclu&iacute;an pacientes adultos (edad: 16&#150;65), 2) inclu&iacute;an un grupo de comparaci&oacute;n psiqui&aacute;trico o normal, 3) utilizaban criterios diagn&oacute;sticos bien establecidos para el diagn&oacute;stico (DSM 3ª. y 4ª. eds.), 4) describ&iacute;an informaci&oacute;n sobre el estado cl&iacute;nico del paciente al momento de la evaluaci&oacute;n y 5) utilizaban evaluaciones cognitivas con tareas estandarizadas y bien establecidas.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En relaci&oacute;n a la memoria declarativa, los pacientes en un episodio depresivo muestran alteraciones en las pruebas de aprendizaje y de memoria de listas de palabras en las variables de recuerdo libre, tanto a corto como a largo plazo; estas subyacen a deficiencias en la planeaci&oacute;n y en la memoria operativa o de trabajo, mismas que persisten despu&eacute;s de la fase aguda de cualquier etapa de este padecimiento. Durante la man&iacute;a se observa un pobre desempe&ntilde;o caracterizado por intrusiones y asociaciones verbales irrelevantes. Se ha se&ntilde;alado que durante la eutimia existen deficiencias asociadas con fallas en la codificaci&oacute;n de la informaci&oacute;n y que no se deben al olvido o a deficiencias en su almacenamiento.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Las evaluaciones que se han realizado de las funciones ejecutivas, coinciden al se&ntilde;alar incapacidad para planear, organizar y controlar la conducta en las fases depresivas y de man&iacute;a/hipoman&iacute;a, mientras que en la eutimia los pacientes &uacute;nicamente muestran diferencias cualitativas en comparaci&oacute;n con los sujetos sanos, caracterizadas por fallas ante tareas de fluidez verbal sem&aacute;ntica y enlentecimiento en la velocidad de procesamiento.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Con respecto a la atenci&oacute;n selectiva, ha sido posible identificar que los pacientes con man&iacute;a/hipoman&iacute;a fallan porque presentan mayor cantidad de errores de comisi&oacute;n, asociado con impulsividad y deficiencias en la autorregulaci&oacute;n; por otra parte, durante la fase depresiva se observa incapacidad para responder a est&iacute;mulos importantes y mayor presencia de errores de omisi&oacute;n. Durante la eutimia, se encuentra alterado el componente de inatenci&oacute;n debido a que obtienen menores puntajes en la detecci&oacute;n del est&iacute;mulo y requieren mayor tiempo de reacci&oacute;n.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los hallazgos neuropsicol&oacute;gicos antes descritos parecen reflejar la disregulaci&oacute;n en la modulaci&oacute;n cortical de las redes subcorticales, particularmente en el circuito que implica a la corteza prefrontal, al complejo am&iacute;gdala&#150;hipocampal, el t&aacute;lamo, los ganglios basales y sus interconexiones; circuito que ha sido propuesto como un modelo neuroanat&oacute;mico de la regulaci&oacute;n afectiva. Adem&aacute;s de la disregulaci&oacute;n en este circuito, parecen estar involucradas disfunciones en los sectores laterales del l&oacute;bulo temporal durante las fases de man&iacute;a/hipoman&iacute;a.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Palabras clave</b>: Endofenotipo, evaluaci&oacute;n neuropsicol&oacute;gica, trastorno bipolar, atenci&oacute;n, memoria, funciones ejecutivas, neurocognici&oacute;n, neuroimagen.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>INTRODUCCI&Oacute;N</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En los &uacute;ltimos a&ntilde;os se han realizado diversos estudios para identificar los <i>loci </i>gen&eacute;ticos del Trastorno Bipolar (TB)con pocos resultados hasta la fecha.<sup>1</sup> Es por ello que se plantea la necesidad de identificar los procesos que median entre el genotipo y el fenotipo dando importancia al estudio de los endofenotipos.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El concepto de endofenotipo se refiere al fenotipo interno que no se advierte cl&iacute;nicamente, pero que puede observarse de manera indirecta a trav&eacute;s de las deficiencias que surgen en la ejecuci&oacute;n de las pruebas neuropsicol&oacute;gicas. De hecho, los endofenotipos se encuentran m&aacute;s cercanos a la etiolog&iacute;a biol&oacute;gica de la enfermedad que sus signos y s&iacute;ntomas cl&iacute;nicos, y est&aacute;n influidos por uno o m&aacute;s genes susceptibles al trastorno. Adem&aacute;s, se caracterizan por ser altamente heredables, se encuentran asociados con la enfermedad, son independientes del estado cl&iacute;nico y co&#150;segregan dentro de la familia.<sup>2</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Adem&aacute;s de las pruebas neuropsicol&oacute;gicas, existen otros m&eacute;todos disponibles para identificar endofenotipos que incluyen las mediciones cognitivas, neurofisiol&oacute;gicas, neuroanat&oacute;micas, imagenol&oacute;gicas y bioqu&iacute;micas.<sup>2</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Diversos autores se&ntilde;alan que los estudios gen&eacute;ticos moleculares sobre el TB se pueden beneficiar de la aplicaci&oacute;n de determinadas mediciones neuropsicol&oacute;gicas porque al definir los marcadores endofenot&iacute;picos cognitivos mejorar&iacute;a la capacidad para detectar los genes que predisponen a la aparici&oacute;n del trastorno, y ayudar&iacute;an una mejor definici&oacute;n de los criterios diagn&oacute;sticos.<sup>3</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En este sentido, en el presente trabajo se realiz&oacute; una revisi&oacute;n de los estudios neuropsicol&oacute;gicos que describen las caracter&iacute;sticas de las alteraciones en funciones ejecutivas, memoria declarativa y atenci&oacute;n, ya que estos dominios cognitivos han sido se&ntilde;alados como candidatos fiables para ser endofenotipos neurocognitivos del TB; asimismo, se describen los circuitos neuronales implicados en estas deficiencias. Se realiz&oacute; una b&uacute;squeda de art&iacute;culos en MEDLINE y psycINFO desde 1990 a 2007 con las siguientes palabras clave: endofenotipo, evaluaci&oacute;n neuropsicol&oacute;gica, trastorno bipolar, atenci&oacute;n, memoria, funciones ejecutivas, neurocognici&oacute;n y neuroimagen. Los t&iacute;tulos y res&uacute;menes de los art&iacute;culos identificados fueron examinados y aquellos que cubr&iacute;an nuestros criterios de inclusi&oacute;n se conservaron. Los art&iacute;culos se tomaron en cuenta si cubr&iacute;an los siguientes criterios: 1) pacientes adultos (edad: 16&#150;65), 2) grupo de comparaci&oacute;n psiqui&aacute;trico o normal, 3) criterios diagn&oacute;sticos bien establecidos para el diagn&oacute;stico (DSM 3&ordf;<sup>.</sup> y 4&ordf;<sup>.</sup> ediciones), 4) informaci&oacute;n sobre el estado cl&iacute;nico del paciente al momento de la evaluaci&oacute;n y 5) evaluaciones neuropsicol&oacute;gicas con instrumentos estandarizados y ampliamente conocidos dentro del &aacute;mbito neurocognitivo.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>DEFICIENCIAS MN&Eacute;SICAS</b></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los estudios de los procesos mn&eacute;sicos en el TB se han orientado hacia la memoria declarativa mediante instrumentos que implican el aprendizaje de listas de palabras o historias, que posteriormente son recordadas de manera libre o con claves sem&aacute;nticas y fonol&oacute;gicas, tanto a corto como a largo plazo. Las formas de evaluar estas pruebas distinguen entre las tareas de recuerdo libre y el reconocimiento de material, con la finalidad de analizar la cantidad de est&iacute;mulos recuperados as&iacute; como el tipo de estrategias que se utilizan para recuperar la informaci&oacute;n.<sup>4 </sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Diversos estudios han documentado deficiencias en la memoria declarativa del TB mediante el <i>California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT)</i>;<sup>5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12</sup> el <i>Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT)</i><sup>13,14,15</sup> y el <i>Wechsler Paired Associate Learning.</i><sup>16</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Particularmente, con la utilizaci&oacute;n del CVLT ha sido posible documentar la naturaleza de las deficiencias mn&eacute;sicas en el TB, al describir si las deficiencias se encuentran a nivel de la codificaci&oacute;n, el almacenamiento o la recuperaci&oacute;n de la informaci&oacute;n.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En este sentido, Bearden y su grupo<sup>17</sup> se&ntilde;alan que los pacientes eut&iacute;micos tienen dificultades en el aprendizaje de palabras y recuperan pocos est&iacute;mulos, tanto a corto como a largo plazo, pero no tienen dificultades para retener las palabras una vez aprendidas. Estas deficiencias se observan con mayor efecto en las tareas de recuerdo libre y reconocimiento, pero no se observan en aquellas donde se utilizan estrategias; es decir, los pacientes son capaces de realizar un procesamiento organizacional al utilizar estrategias sem&aacute;nticas para el aprendizaje y recuperaci&oacute;n de la informaci&oacute;n. Otro dato interesante se refiere a la presencia de intrusiones durante la recuperaci&oacute;n de la informaci&oacute;n, lo cual indica deficiencia en el monitoreo que depende del funcionamiento de la corteza prefrontal.<sup>18,19</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Lo anterior indica que las deficiencias mn&eacute;sicas observadas en el TB se relacionan m&aacute;s con una pobre codificaci&oacute;n que con un olvido r&aacute;pido.<sup>17,20</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Por otra parte, el perfil de ejecuci&oacute;n de pacientes en fase depresiva se caracteriza por un pobre desempe&ntilde;o en el recuerdo libre inmediato y en la memoria operativa o de trabajo, mientras que conservan la memoria de reconocimiento. Las deficiencias en el recuerdo libre de palabras se deben a la dificultad para planear, as&iacute; como para implementar estrategias eficientes de recuperaci&oacute;n que dependen de la integridad de funciones ejecutivas controladas por estructuras frontales.<sup>21,22</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La ejecuci&oacute;n mn&eacute;sica durante las fases de man&iacute;a/ hipoman&iacute;a se caracteriza por presentar fallas tanto en la adquisici&oacute;n como en la retenci&oacute;n de informaci&oacute;n,<sup>23,24</sup> al tiempo que los pacientes expresan asociaciones verbales irrelevantes.<sup>25</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>LAS DEFICIENCIAS EN LAS FUNCIONES EJECUTIVAS</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Las funciones ejecutivas son actividades mentales complejas necesarias para planificar, organizar, guiar, revisar, regularizar y evaluar el comportamiento. Dentro de ellas se encuentra la memoria operativa o de trabajo, la planeaci&oacute;n, el automonitoreo, la autorregulaci&oacute;n y la flexibilidad cognoscitiva.<sup>4</sup></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Se han empleado diversas pruebas para el estudio de las funciones ejecutivas en el TB y se han documentado deficiencias al emplear el <i>Tower of London Test (TL), </i><sup>14,26,27 </sup>el <i>Trial Making Test part B (TMT), </i><sup>27&#150;29</sup> el <i>Brown&#150;Petersen Paradigm,</i><sup>30</sup> el <i>Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST),</i><sup>16,28,31</sup> el <i>Stroop Color&#150;word Interference Test</i><sup>16,28,31</sup> y el <i>Controlled Oral Word Association test (FAS).</i><sup>6,14,28</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En t&eacute;rminos generales, los pacientes con TB presentan deficiencias en las funciones ejecutivas porque tienen problemas relacionados con la planificaci&oacute;n, la organizaci&oacute;n y el control de la acci&oacute;n, la formaci&oacute;n de conceptos y la flexibilidad cognitiva. Por lo general, fracasan en tareas que carecen de estructura o claves y perseveran al repetir sus errores, tambi&eacute;n utilizan estrategias inadecuadas para corregirlos.<sup>25</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El perfil de ejecuci&oacute;n durante la fase depresiva se caracteriza por un pobre desempe&ntilde;o en tareas de toma de decisiones y formaci&oacute;n de conceptos como la que se requiere en el WCST;<sup>24,32</sup> en tanto que, ante tareas de fluidez verbal, muestran deficiencias selectivas porque solamente se afectan las categor&iacute;as sem&aacute;nticas y se mantienen las fon&eacute;micas.<sup>33</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Durante la fase de man&iacute;a/hipoman&iacute;a se presentan alteraciones en tareas de formaci&oacute;n de conceptos, en el cambio del set atencional y, de manera particular, se observan deficiencias en el sistema de control de impulsos conocido como autorregulaci&oacute;n.<sup>32,34,35</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los pacientes en fase de eutimia no exhiben grandes diferencias en comparaci&oacute;n con los controles sanos; sin embargo, cualitativamente se observa una leve tendencia para resolver pobremente tareas de fluidez verbal sem&aacute;ntica y enlentecimiento en la velocidad de procesamiento. Lo anterior se&ntilde;ala que a pesar de que los pacientes eut&iacute;micos pueden lograr un nivel de ejecuci&oacute;n similar al de las personas sanas en tareas de resoluci&oacute;n de problemas complejos, planeaci&oacute;n, cambio del set atencional, automonitoreo y fluidez verbal, la calidad de su ejecuci&oacute;n podr&iacute;a verse afectada debido a que cometen mayor cantidad de errores en la fluidez verbal y porque requieren m&aacute;s tiempo del estandarizado para completar las tareas.<sup>20,36,37</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>DEFICIENCIAS ATENCIONALES</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los estudios neuropsicol&oacute;gicos de los procesos atencionales en el TB se han orientado hacia la atenci&oacute;n sostenida, la cual se refiere a la capacidad para mantener una actividad atencional por un per&iacute;odo de tiempo y comprende complejas interacciones de funciones por medio de las cuales el foco atencional es mantenido con esfuerzo, resistiendo el incremento de la fatiga y las condiciones de distractibilidad<sup>4</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Las mediciones neuropsicol&oacute;gicas que se han utilizado para medir la atenci&oacute;n sostenida en el TB incluyen el <i>Continuous Performance Test (CPT)</i><sup>38&#150;40</sup> y el <i>Mackworh Clock Task.</i><sup>41</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Al describir la naturaleza de las deficiencias atencionales en los pacientes bipolares, se observa que durante la fase depresiva existe menor sensibilidad para detectar el est&iacute;mulo y por ende mayor porcentaje en errores por omisi&oacute;n.<sup>42&#150;45</sup></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En tanto que durante la fase de man&iacute;a/hipoman&iacute;a se presentan errores de comisi&oacute;n o falsas respuestas, perseveraciones, y menor detecci&oacute;n del est&iacute;mulo; adem&aacute;s se encuentran afectados los tres componentes de la atenci&oacute;n sostenida que incluyen la inatenci&oacute;n, la impulsividad y la vigilancia.<sup>43&#150;46</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Por su parte, los pacientes en fase de eutimia tambi&eacute;n presentan alteraciones por fallas en el componente de inatenci&oacute;n debido a que obtienen menores puntajes en la detecci&oacute;n del est&iacute;mulo y requieren mayor tiempo de reacci&oacute;n.<sup>46</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>CIRCUITOS NEURONALES IMPLICADOS EN LAS ALTERACIONES COGNITIVAS DEL TB</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los hallazgos neuropsicol&oacute;gicos antes descritos parecen reflejar la disregulaci&oacute;n en la modulaci&oacute;n cortical de las redes subcorticales, particularmente en el circuito que implica a la corteza prefrontal, al complejo amigdalino&#150;hipocampal, el t&aacute;lamo, los ganglios basales y sus interconexiones; mismo que ha sido propuesto como un modelo neuroanat&oacute;mico de la regulaci&oacute;n afectiva.<sup>17,47</sup> Adem&aacute;s de la disregulaci&oacute;n en este circuito, parecen estar involucradas disfunciones en los sectores laterales, que afectan especialmente al l&oacute;bulo temporal durante las fases de man&iacute;a/hipoman&iacute;a.<sup>17</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Diversos estudios de neuroimagen funcional, en los cuales se mide la actividad metab&oacute;lica cerebral durante la resoluci&oacute;n de paradigmas cognitivos, confirman lo anteriormente mencionado. En estudios con la Tomograf&iacute;a por Emisi&oacute;n de Fot&oacute;n &Uacute;nico (SPECT) ha sido posible determinar que durante la fase de man&iacute;a existen cambios en el c&iacute;ngulo anterior y en la v&iacute;a &oacute;rbito&#150;frontal izquierda, lo que es compatible con los modelos de procesamiento de informaci&oacute;n emocional.<sup>48</sup> Con la Resonancia Magn&eacute;tica Funcional (RMf), los pacientes en fase depresiva exhiben reducci&oacute;n en el metabolismo prefrontal y en el de la corteza paral&iacute;mbica anterior, as&iacute; como incremento en el metabolismo del estriado ventral, el t&aacute;lamo y la am&iacute;gdala derecha.<sup>49</sup> En tanto que los pacientes en fase de eutimia presentan incremento de metabolismo en el cerebelo, el giro lingular y la cunea; por lo que Ketter<sup>49</sup> propone un "s&iacute;ndrome afectivo&#150;cognitivo&#150;cerebelar", en el que existe una alteraci&oacute;n en la regulaci&oacute;n del afecto entre el cerebelo y los circuitos t&eacute;mporo&#150;l&iacute;mbicos.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Otros estudios han involucrado el funcionamiento de la corteza prefrontal ventral derecha en pacientes eut&iacute;micos durante la resoluci&oacute;n de paradigmas de funcionamiento ejecutivo con RMf; en tanto que los pacientes en fase depresiva presentan incremento del metabolismo del c&oacute;rtex prefrontal ventral (CPFV) del hemisferio izquierdo, observ&aacute;ndose un patr&oacute;n similar en el hemisferio derecho en pacientes con man&iacute;a. Con esto se concluye que las regiones anterior y dorsal del CPFV se asocian con caracter&iacute;sticas de rasgo porque se interconectan con estructuras corticales como la corteza prefrontal dorsolateral y el c&oacute;rtex t&eacute;mporoparietal. En cambio, las alteraciones de estado se vinculan a una disfunci&oacute;n ventral que se encuentra relacionada con estructuras l&iacute;mbicas.<sup>50</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>CONCLUSIONES</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">De acuerdo con Glahn y sus colaboradores,<sup>3</sup> los marcadores neurocognitivos se est&aacute;n postulando como &iacute;ndices cuantificables del TB. Estos endofenotipos no pueden identificar los genes de la enfermedad <i>per se</i>; no obstante, pueden se&ntilde;alar un fen&oacute;meno conductual heredable y altamente confiable.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En el presente trabajo se present&oacute; una revisi&oacute;n de los estudios neuropsicol&oacute;gicos que reportan alteraciones en los dominios de atenci&oacute;n, memoria y funciones ejecutivas, ya que cada uno de ellos cumple con los criterios establecidos para ser endofenotipos del TB. En este sentido, las deficiencias atencionales se caracterizan por fallas en la detecci&oacute;n del est&iacute;mulo, errores de comisi&oacute;n y perseveraciones, siendo estas alteraciones m&aacute;s graves durante las fases de man&iacute;a y depresi&oacute;n. Con respecto a las deficiencias mn&eacute;sicas, el perfil de funcionamiento se caracteriza por fallas en la codificaci&oacute;n de la informaci&oacute;n y por tanto no involucra su olvido. Por su parte, las deficiencias ejecutivas son m&aacute;s amplias y complejas porque los pacientes en fases de man&iacute;a o de depresi&oacute;n tienen alteraciones relacionadas con la planificaci&oacute;n, la organizaci&oacute;n, la autorregulaci&oacute;n, la formaci&oacute;n de conceptos y la flexibilidad cognoscitiva. Estas deficiencias parecen reflejar la ineficiencia de la corteza prefrontal para regular la actividad de estructuras subcorticales como el complejo amigdalino&#150;hipocampal, el t&aacute;lamo, los ganglios basales y sus interconexiones, dando como resultado la disfunci&oacute;n del circuito que regula el afecto.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Dado que uno de los criterios para considerar un marcador como endofenotipo v&aacute;lido es que &eacute;ste se encuentre presente cuando los pacientes est&aacute;n en remisi&oacute;n de las fases agudas de la enfermedad, concluimos que las alteraciones cognitivas que se presentan en el estado de eutimia son las m&aacute;s representativas; es decir, las deficiencias en la codificaci&oacute;n de informaci&oacute;n ante tareas de memoria verbal, las alteraciones en la detecci&oacute;n de est&iacute;mulos al utilizar paradigmas de atenci&oacute;n sostenida, as&iacute; como la lentitud en la fluidez verbal y un mayor tiempo del estandarizado para realizar tareas que eval&uacute;an funciones ejecutivas, podr&iacute;an considerarse marcadores endofenot&iacute;picos confiables del TB.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Para finalizar, es pertinente resaltar que todav&iacute;a no se conocen cu&aacute;les de los muchos genes candidatos para el TB podr&iacute;an estar asociados con los endofenotipos cognitivos del trastorno;<sup>3</sup> sin embargo, algunos estudios han reportado hallazgos prometedores y preliminares que relacionan las alteraciones ejecutivas y mn&eacute;sicas con un gen de factor neurotr&oacute;fico,<sup>51,52</sup> inici&aacute;ndose as&iacute; el camino para la b&uacute;squeda de la asociaci&oacute;n entre los endofenotipos cognoscitivos y los genes del TB.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>REFERENCIAS</b></font></p>     <!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">1. 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