<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0035-001X</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Revista mexicana de física]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Rev. mex. fis.]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0035-001X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Sociedad Mexicana de Física]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0035-001X2011000500012</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Constantes fundamentales: la última frontera para el Sistema Internacional de Unidades]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[López Romero]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.M.]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lazos Martínez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R.J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Centro Nacional de Metrología División de Metrología de Tiempo y Frecuencia ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ Querétaro]]></addr-line>
<country>México</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>11</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2011</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>11</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2011</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>57</volume>
<numero>5</numero>
<fpage>460</fpage>
<lpage>469</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0035-001X2011000500012&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0035-001X2011000500012&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0035-001X2011000500012&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[La frase "una misma medida para todos los hombres y para todos los tiempos" resume el ideal que llevaría al desarrollo del Sistema Internacional de Unidades, SI. La evolución en las definiciones de las unidades de medida del SI puede considerarse, de alguna manera, como una serie de aproximaciones hacia el ideal en el que las unidades de medida son invariantes en el tiempo y en el espacio, inmutables, y susceptibles de materializaciones equivalentes, reproducibles, y accesibles, a fin de ser útiles en procesos de medición de orden práctico, industrial, tecnológico y científico. En el estado actual del desarrollo científico y tecnológico las constantes fundamentales se presentan como la última frontera para definir las unidades de medida del SI. El abandono de artefactos que sustentan las definiciones de las unidades del SI dio inicio en 1960, cuando la longitud de onda de una de las radiaciones del Kriptón 86 fue utilizada para redefinir la unidad de longitud. Por otro lado, la unidad de tiempo, definida en 1967 en términos de la separación de los niveles hiperfinos del estado base del átomo de Cesio-133, fue otro importante paso hacia la incorporación de las constantes fundamentales en las unidades del SI. En 1982, la unidad de longitud quedo establecida en términos de la velocidad de la luz en el vacío y mediciones de tiempo. Lo anterior ilustra claramente la forma en que el SI evoluciona hacia la incorporación de constantes fundamentales, o combinaciones de ellas, para el sustento de las unidades de medida. Todas las unidades de medida del SI han pasado, de alguna u otra manera, por un proceso de redefinición con la notable excepción de la unidad de masa, el kilogramo. Actualmente, de las siete unidades base del SI, el kilogramo es la única que se sustenta en las propiedades de un artefacto específico, a saber un cilindro de platino. Sin embargo, esto último puede cambiar en el futuro próximo al fijar un valor sin incertidumbre para la constante de Planck y definir el kilogramo en términos de las fuerzas electromagnéticas generadas en una balanza electromagnética, denominada usualmente "balanza del watt". De esta manera, la definición del kilogramo quedaría enmarcada en el contexto de la mecánica cuántica, ya que se apoyaría en la realización experimental de la unidad de tiempo, y por lo tanto en la separación hiperfina del estado base del átomo de Cesio-133, la reproducción del volt en términos del efecto Josephson y la realización del ohm en términos del efecto Hall cuántico. Definiciones para el kelvin, en términos de la constante de Boltzmann, del mol en términos del número de Avogadro y la candela en términos de la eficacia luminosa de cierta radiación monocromática harían de las constantes fundamentales los puntos de apoyo del SI, a fin de aportar los sistemas de medición de muy alto nivel de exactitud necesarios en la consecución de los avances científicos y tecnológicos por venir.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[The phrase "one measure for all men and all times" summarizes the ideal that would lead to the development of the International System of Units, SI. The evolution of the definitions of the SI units of measurement may be somehow considered as a series of approximations to such an ideal in which the units of measurement are invariant in time and space, immutable, and susceptible to equivalent realizations, reproducible, and accessible to be useful in measuring processes of practical, industrial, technological and scientific purposes. In the current state of the science and technology the fundamental constants appear as the last frontier to define the SI units of measurement. The abandonment of artifacts to support the definitions of SI units began in 1960 when the wavelength of a krypton 86 radiation was used to redefine the unit of length, the meter. Moreover, the time unit, defined in 1967 in terms of the separation of the ground state hyperfine levels of the Cesium-133 atom, was another important step towards the incorporation of the fundamental constants in the SI units. In 1982, the unit of length was established in terms of the speed of light in vacuum and time measurements. This clearly illustrates how the SI evolves towards the incorporation of fundamental constants, or combinations of them, to support the units of measurement. In some way or another, all units of measurement have gone through a process of redefinition with the notable exception of the mass unit, the kilogram. Currently, among the SI seven base units, the kilogram is the only one based on the properties of a specific artifact, namely a cylinder of platinum. However, this may change in the near future by setting a value without uncertainty for Planck's constant and by defining the kilogram in terms of electromagnetic forces generated in a balance, usually called "watt balance". Thus, the definition of the kilogram would be framed in the context of the quantum mechanics, since it would rely experimentally on the time unit, and therefore on the hyperfine separation of the ground state of Cesium-133 atom, on the realizations of the volt in terms of the Josephson effect and on the ohm in terms of the quantum Hall effect. Definitions for the kelvin in terms of the Boltzmann constant, the mole in terms of Avogadro's number and the candela in terms of luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation will allow the fundamental constants to be the support of the SI in order to provide measurement systems with a very high accuracy to pursuit the scientific and technological advances to come.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Constantes fundamentales]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Sistema Internacional de Unidades]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Fundamental constants]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[International System of Units]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="4">Revisi&oacute;n</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="4"><b>Constantes fundamentales: la &uacute;ltima frontera para el Sistema Internacional de Unidades</b></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>J.M. L&oacute;pez Romero and R.J. Lazos Mart&iacute;nez</b></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><i>Divisi&oacute;n de Metrolog&iacute;a de Tiempo y Frecuencia, Centro Nacional de Metrolog&iacute;a, km 4.5 Carretera a los Cu&eacute;s, El Marques, 76246, Quer&eacute;taro, M&eacute;xico, e&#45;mail:</i> <a href="mailto:mauricio.lopez@cenam.mx"><i>mauricio.lopez@cenam.mx</i></a></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Recibido el 10 de noviembre de 2010;    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<br> 	aceptado el 8 de septiembre de 2011</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Resumen</b></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La frase "una <i>misma medida para todos los hombres y para todos los tiempos"</i> resume el ideal que llevar&iacute;a al desarrollo del Sistema Internacional de Unidades, SI. La evoluci&oacute;n en las definiciones de las unidades de medida del SI puede considerarse, de alguna manera, como una serie de aproximaciones hacia el ideal en el que las unidades de medida son invariantes en el tiempo y en el espacio, inmutables, y susceptibles de materializaciones equivalentes, reproducibles, y accesibles, a fin de ser &uacute;tiles en procesos de medici&oacute;n de orden pr&aacute;ctico, industrial, tecnol&oacute;gico y cient&iacute;fico. En el estado actual del desarrollo cient&iacute;fico y tecnol&oacute;gico las constantes fundamentales se presentan como la &uacute;ltima frontera para definir las unidades de medida del SI. El abandono de artefactos que sustentan las definiciones de las unidades del SI dio inicio en 1960, cuando la longitud de onda de una de las radiaciones del Kript&oacute;n 86 fue utilizada para redefinir la unidad de longitud. Por otro lado, la unidad de tiempo, definida en 1967 en t&eacute;rminos de la separaci&oacute;n de los niveles hiperfinos del estado base del &aacute;tomo de Cesio&#45;133, fue otro importante paso hacia la incorporaci&oacute;n de las constantes fundamentales en las unidades del SI. En 1982, la unidad de longitud quedo establecida en t&eacute;rminos de la velocidad de la luz en el vac&iacute;o y mediciones de tiempo. Lo anterior ilustra claramente la forma en que el SI evoluciona hacia la incorporaci&oacute;n de constantes fundamentales, o combinaciones de ellas, para el sustento de las unidades de medida. Todas las unidades de medida del SI han pasado, de alguna u otra manera, por un proceso de redefinici&oacute;n con la notable excepci&oacute;n de la unidad de masa, el kilogramo. Actualmente, de las siete unidades base del SI, el kilogramo es la &uacute;nica que se sustenta en las propiedades de un artefacto espec&iacute;fico, a saber un cilindro de platino. Sin embargo, esto &uacute;ltimo puede cambiar en el futuro pr&oacute;ximo al fijar un valor sin incertidumbre para la constante de Planck y definir el kilogramo en t&eacute;rminos de las fuerzas electromagn&eacute;ticas generadas en una balanza electromagn&eacute;tica, denominada usualmente "balanza del watt". De esta manera, la definici&oacute;n del kilogramo quedar&iacute;a enmarcada en el contexto de la mec&aacute;nica cu&aacute;ntica, ya que se apoyar&iacute;a en la realizaci&oacute;n experimental de la unidad de tiempo, y por lo tanto en la separaci&oacute;n hiperfina del estado base del &aacute;tomo de Cesio&#45;133, la reproducci&oacute;n del volt en t&eacute;rminos del efecto Josephson y la realizaci&oacute;n del ohm en t&eacute;rminos del efecto Hall cu&aacute;ntico. Definiciones para el kelvin, en t&eacute;rminos de la constante de Boltzmann, del mol en t&eacute;rminos del n&uacute;mero de Avogadro y la candela en t&eacute;rminos de la eficacia luminosa de cierta radiaci&oacute;n monocrom&aacute;tica har&iacute;an de las constantes fundamentales los puntos de apoyo del SI, a fin de aportar los sistemas de medici&oacute;n de muy alto nivel de exactitud necesarios en la consecuci&oacute;n de los avances cient&iacute;ficos y tecnol&oacute;gicos por venir.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Descriptores</b>: Constantes fundamentales; Sistema Internacional de Unidades.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Abstract</b></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">The phrase "one <i>measure for all men and all times"</i> summarizes the ideal that would lead to the development of the International System of Units, SI. The evolution of the definitions of the SI units of measurement may be somehow considered as a series of approximations to such an ideal in which the units of measurement are invariant in time and space, immutable, and susceptible to equivalent realizations, reproducible, and accessible to be useful in measuring processes of practical, industrial, technological and scientific purposes. In the current state of the science and technology the fundamental constants appear as the last frontier to define the SI units of measurement. The abandonment of artifacts to support the definitions of SI units began in 1960 when the wavelength of a krypton 86 radiation was used to redefine the unit of length, the meter. Moreover, the time unit, defined in 1967 in terms of the separation of the ground state hyperfine levels of the Cesium&#45;133 atom, was another important step towards the incorporation of the fundamental constants in the SI units. In 1982, the unit of length was established in terms of the speed of light in vacuum and time measurements. This clearly illustrates how the SI evolves towards the incorporation of fundamental constants, or combinations of them, to support the units of measurement. In some way or another, all units of measurement have gone through a process of redefinition with the notable exception of the mass unit, the kilogram. Currently, among the SI seven base units, the kilogram is the only one based on the properties of a specific artifact, namely a cylinder of platinum. However, this may change in the near future by setting a value without uncertainty for Planck's constant and by defining the kilogram in terms of electromagnetic forces generated in a balance, usually called "watt balance". Thus, the definition of the kilogram would be framed in the context of the quantum mechanics, since it would rely experimentally on the time unit, and therefore on the hyperfine separation of the ground state of Cesium&#45;133 atom, on the realizations of the volt in terms of the Josephson effect and on the ohm in terms of the quantum Hall effect. Definitions for the kelvin in terms of the Boltzmann constant, the mole in terms of Avogadro's number and the candela in terms of luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation will allow the fundamental constants to be the support of the SI in order to provide measurement systems with a very high accuracy to pursuit the scientific and technological advances to come.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Keywords</b>: Fundamental constants; International System of Units.</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">PACS: 06.20.fa; 06.20.Jr</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><a href="/pdf/rmf/v57n5/v57n5a12.pdf" target="_blank">DESCARGAR ART&Iacute;CULO EN FORMATO PDF</a></font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>  	    <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Referencias</b></font></p>  	    <!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">1. W. Kula, "Las <i>medidas y los hombres"</i> (editorial Siglo XXI, 1980).    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=8371228&pid=S0035-001X201100050001200001&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>  	    <!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">2. J. Clerck Maxwell, <i>"A Treatise on Electricity and the Magnetism"</i> (publicado en 1872 por Clarendon Press, Oxford).    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=8371230&pid=S0035-001X201100050001200002&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>  	    <!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">3. P.A.M. Dirac, " <i>Cosmological Models and the Large Numbers Hypothesis"</i> (Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series A Mathematical and Physical Sciences, Volume 338, Issue 1615). pp 439&#45;446.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=8371232&pid=S0035-001X201100050001200003&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>  	    <!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">4. F. Ramsey Norman, <i>"Molecular beams"</i> (Oxford University Press, 1956).    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=8371234&pid=S0035-001X201100050001200004&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>  	    <!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">5. V. Gerginov <i>et al.,</i> " <i>Uncertainty evaluation of the caesium fountain clock PTB&#45;CsF2" Metrologia</i> <b>47</b> (2010) 65&#45;79.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=8371236&pid=S0035-001X201100050001200005&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>  	    <!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">6. J.L. Hall, <i>"Defining and measuring optical frequencies: the optical clock opportunity&#45; and more"</i> (Nobel Lecture, December 8, 2005).    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=8371238&pid=S0035-001X201100050001200006&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>  	    <!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">7. The NIST reference on constants, units and uncertainty <a href="http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/" target="_blank">http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/</a></font>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=8371240&pid=S0035-001X201100050001200007&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">8. B.D. Josephson,. "The <i>discovery of tunnelling supercurrents". Rev. Mod. Phys.</i> <b>46</b> (1974) 251&#45;254.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=8371241&pid=S0035-001X201100050001200008&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></font></p>  	    ]]></body>
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