<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0185-3325</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Salud mental]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Salud Ment]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0185-3325</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0185-33252009000400009</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Los contaminantes ambientales bifenilos policlorinados (PCB) y sus efectos sobre el Sistema Nervioso y la salud]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[The polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBS) environmental pollutants and their effects on the Nervous System and health]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Miller-Pérez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Carolina]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Sánchez-Islas]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Eduardo]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mucio-Ramírez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Samuel]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mendoza-Sotelo]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[José]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[León-Olea]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Martha]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz Dirección de Investigaciones en Neurociencias Departamento de Histología y Microscopía Electrónica]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2009</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2009</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>32</volume>
<numero>4</numero>
<fpage>335</fpage>
<lpage>346</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0185-33252009000400009&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0185-33252009000400009&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0185-33252009000400009&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[Environmental pollution is a world-wide issue which is a matter for concern among the international community. Great industrialized cities are the most polluted and Mexico City is among them. However, pollution affects places which are far away from contaminated urban areas, thus damaging eco-systems. Environmental pollution is responsible for an alarming and increasing list of illnesses in humans, animals and plants. This has generated an international interest in this problem. From the 187 chemical agents considered toxic for living organisms, the Inter-Government Committee for the Negotiation of Persistent Organic Pollutants (Pops) has catalogued 12 as the most hazardous for life. Among them are the so-called polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). PCBs are a family of 209 structurally chlorinated compounds made up of chlorine, carbon and hydrogen. These compounds are chemically and thermally stable, insoluble in water, non-flammable, electrically resistant, with low volatility at normal temperatures, and bio-degradable only at high temperatures (1200°C). One of their main disadvantages is that they are subject to a process of bioaccumulation where their concentration increases along the food chain. Their physical properties make them widely used in industry, mainly in the electrical and building areas. Not long after PCBs were manufactured, it was determined that food for human intake such as milk, fish and eggs, to mention just a few, presented higher PCBs concentrations than those allowed by the Organism for US Environmental Protection (0.0005mg/l). It has been demonstrated that PCBs can cause damage to the endocrine, immunologic and Nervous Systems, among others. The underlying mechanism of action of these compounds is through the activation of the aril hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a ligand-dependent cytosolic transcription factor. PCBs act like ligands and, given their lipophilic properties, enter cells by passive diffusion. Two co-chaperone proteins are bound to AhR to form an oligomer which dissociates when binding to a PCB. After ligand binding, a heterodimer is formed which translocates into the nucleus and links to specific DNA regions; this in turn regulates the transcription velocity of specific genes and produces genetic alterations that modify processes and functions in the cell. PCBs belong in the group of chemicals considered endocrine disruptors. Damage caused by these compounds can be irreversible. In the endocrine system they interfere with the production and regulation of steroid and thyroid hormones, acting as agonists or antagonists of hormone receptors. They impair endocrine metabolic pathways, such as those of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4), and inhibit carrier proteins such as transthyretin. Contaminants that harm the endocrine system also affect the reproductive function and disrupt various aspects of sexuality. In males, PCBs inhibit the synthesis of testosterone, alter masculinity, reduce sperm motility and the capacity of binding and penetrating the ovule, induce changes in the shape of the penis as well as its size, retard or inhibit testicle descent, and can generate testicular cancer. In females, they can cause early menarche (first menstruation), enhanced duration of menstrual bleeding, urogenital malformations, endometriosis, spontaneous abortion, fetal death, premature delivery and low-weight in offspring. Our group, as well as other research groups, has encountered that PCB administration to gestating rats causes an increment in offspring mortality, fetal miscarriages, low bodily weight of the offspring and a reduction in the number of males per litter. The immunological system is sensitive to chemicals such as PCBs which originate an immunological response; they act as immunotoxins that cause thymus atrophy, affect innate immunity, compromise host resistance and immunity mediated by B and T cells, as well as humoral immunity. PCBs and their metabolites are carcinogenic and act as general cancer promoters by enhancing the effects of other substances through the generation of oxygen reactive compounds that can induce DNA oxidative damage. Chronic PCB exposure can cause chromosomal aberrations; these compounds have been related to all types of cancer: mammary gland, liver, biliary tract, gastrointestinal, skin (especially malignant melanomas), lung, pancreas and brain. There is evidence that organisms are more vulnerable to PCB exposure during the early embryonic stages. These compounds can cross the placenta and affect the fetus; when they are present in human milk they keep the offspring under high PCB levels thus altering development. In addition, they can contribute to the interruption of growth and development of brain, organs and tissues. As a result, malfunctions or miscarriage occur. PCBs are involved in the neurodegeneration process since they affect dopaminergic neurons in caudate nucleus, ventral tegmental area and substantia nigra. These compounds disrupt neuronal mechanisms such as vesicular transport and dopamine release which lead to cellular death similar to that described for diseases such as Parkinson's. Perinatal exposure to PCBs is associated with neurodevelopmental deficiencies of infants which consist of dysfunctions at the neuropsychological level such as in verbal learning (syllables, words and concepts), performance functions, changes in attention and psychomotor development. Acute or chronic exposure to PCBs is associated with cephalea, insomnia, nervousness, irritability, depression and anxiety; these symptoms in turn modify behavior. At the neurophysiological level, these contaminants impair excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission in the hippocampus, inhibit long-term potentiation and synaptic plasticity, alter some mechanisms of cell signaling (GABAergic pathway), and deteriorate learning and memory. Recently, these compounds have been related to cognitive alterations. Our group demonstrated that the administration of PCB-77 and Aroclor 1254 during gestation inhibits the enzymatic activity of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) in 10-day postnatal pups. These rats presented degenerative morphological neuronal changes such as shrinking, picnosis, loss of neurites, neuronal death and decrease in the number of nitrergic neurons in the paraventricular and supraoptic hypothalamic nuclei. We also reported that in these nuclei a decrease in immunoreactivity to vasopressin and neuronal NOS is observed. The evidence in PCB studies is conclusive. The exposure to these environmental toxins interferes with the functioning of various organs and systems such as the endocrine and Nervous Systems, not only in humans but also in animals. These contaminants pose a risk factor for a wide number of neurodegenerative alterations.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[La contaminación ambiental es un grave problema mundial que actualmente preocupa a la comunidad internacional. Las grandes ciudades industrializadas, como la de México, son las más contaminadas. Sin embargo, la contaminación llega hasta zonas alejadas de donde se produce y afecta los ecosistemas. La contaminación es responsable de una alarmante y creciente lista de enfermedades en el hombre, los animales y las plantas. Los bifenilos policlorados (PCB) se catalogaron dentro de los 12 contaminantes orgánicos más tóxicos para los organismos vivos. Sus propiedades físicas hicieron que se usaran ampliamente en la industria. No son biodegradables y se acumulan en el ambiente, se transfieren dentro de la cadena alimenticia y tienden a concentrarse más al final de ésta, por lo que en los alimentos se determinaron concentraciones que sobrepasaban los límites establecidos por el Organismo de Protección del Ambiente de los Estados Unidos. Se demostró que los PCB afectan la función de los sistemas endocrino, inmunológico y nervioso, entre otros. El mecanismo de acción descrito para los PCB, es por medio de la activación del receptor aril hidrocarburo, un factor de transcripción citosólico dependiente de ligando. Los PCB actúan como ligandos y son lipofílicos, por lo que entran a la célula y llegan al núcleo para unirse al ADN, lo cual altera la trascripción de genes específicos y provoca alteraciones genéticas que conducen a cambios en los procesos y funciones celulares. Los PCB interfieren con la producción y regulación de las hormonas esteroides y tiroideas al actuar como antagonistas o agonistas de los receptores hormonales. Afectan la función reproductora y alteran diferentes aspectos de la sexualidad. Como otros grupos de investigación, el nuestro ha observado que la administración de PCB a ratas gestantes causa un incremento de la mortalidad de las crías, pérdida fetal, peso corporal bajo y una reducción en el número de machos por camada. Los PCB actúan como inmunotoxinas que causan la atrofia del timo y afectan la respuesta inmune. Los PCB y sus metabolitos son carcinogénicos debido a la generación de especies reactivas de oxígeno que pueden producir daño oxidativo al ADN, provocar aberraciones cromosómicas y generar cáncer de mama, hígado, tracto biliar, gastrointestinal, cerebral, etc. Los organismos son más vulnerables a la exposición de los PCB durante las etapas tempranas del desarrollo embrionario. Los PCB atraviesan la placenta y llegan al feto, permanecen en la leche materna y mantienen niveles altos en las crías. Los PCB afectan así el desarrollo del Sistema Nervioso, los órganos y los tejidos, y pueden llevar a la pérdida fetal. También se asocian a deficiencias en el neurodesarrollo del niño y a alteraciones neuropsicológicas en la atención, el aprendizaje y el desarrollo psicomotor. La exposición aguda o crónica a los PCB se asocia con cefalea, insomnio, nerviosismo, irritabilidad, depresión y ansiedad. Los PCB participan en el proceso de neurodegeneración al afectar el sistema dopaminérgico. En el nivel neurofisiológico, afectan la transmisión sináptica excitatoria e inhibitoria hipocampal; inhiben la potenciación a largo plazo y la plasticidad sináptica; alteran mecanismos de señalización celular como el GABAérgico, en el aprendizaje y la memoria, y producen alteraciones cognoscitivas. Nuestro grupo demostró que la administración de los PCB durante la gestación inhibe la actividad de la enzima sintasa del óxido nítrico y provoca cambios neuronales morfológicos degenerativos en los núcleos paraventricular y supraóptico hipotalámicos. Las evidencias de los estudios realizados con los PCB son concluyentes en cuanto a que la exposición a estos tóxicos ambientales interfiere con el funcionamiento de diferentes órganos y sistemas y a que son un factor de riesgo para un amplio número de alteraciones neurodegenerativas. Actualmente, las poblaciones están expuestas a concentraciones que exceden los niveles límite tolerables recomendados por la Organización Mundial de la Salud. Nuestro grupo está analizando las alteraciones de estos contaminantes en el nivel neuroendocrino y en algunos aspectos del aprendizaje y la memoria. Dada la relevancia de los efectos de los PCB en la salud y de la falta en México de una valoración de los niveles de los PCB existentes en personas y alimentos, es importante que las instituciones de salud fomenten y apoyen las investigaciones en esta área.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Pollutants]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[neurodevelopment]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[neurotoxicity]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[PCBs]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[askarels]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Contaminantes]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[neurodesarrollo]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[neurotoxicidad]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[PCB]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[askareles]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[ <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="4">Actualizaci&oacute;n por temas</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="4"><b>Los contaminantes ambientales bifenilos policlorinados (PCB) y sus efectos sobre el Sistema Nervioso y la salud</b></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="3"><b>The polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBS) environmental pollutants and their effects on the Nervous System and health</b></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Carolina Miller&#150;P&eacute;rez,<sup>1</sup> Eduardo S&aacute;nchez&#150;Islas,<sup>1</sup> Samuel Mucio&#150;Ram&iacute;rez,<sup>1 </sup>Jos&eacute; Mendoza&#150;Sotelo,<sup>1</sup> Martha Le&oacute;n&#150;Olea<sup>1</sup></b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><sup>1</sup> <i>Departamento de Histolog&iacute;a y Microscop&iacute;a Electr&oacute;nica. Direcci&oacute;n de Investigaciones en Neurociencias. Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatr&iacute;a Ram&oacute;n de la Fuente Mu&ntilde;iz.</i></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Correspondencia:</b>    <br>   Dra. Martha Le&oacute;n&#150;Olea.    <br>   Departamento de Histolog&iacute;a y Microscop&iacute;a Electr&oacute;nica.    <br>   Direcci&oacute;n de Investigaciones en Neurociencias.    <br>   Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatr&iacute;a Ram&oacute;n de la Fuente Mu&ntilde;iz.    <br>   Calz. M&eacute;xico&#150;Xochimilco 101,    <br>   San Lorenzo Huipulco.    <br>   Tlalpan, 14370,    <br>   M&eacute;xico DF.    <br>   Fax: (55) 56559980.    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<br>   E&#150;mail: <a href="mailto:marthalo@imp.edu.mx">marthalo@imp.edu.mx</a></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Recibido: 10 de febrero de 2009    <br>   Aceptado: 23 de febrero de 2009.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Abstract</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Environmental pollution is a world&#150;wide issue which is a matter for concern among the international community. Great industrialized cities are the most polluted and Mexico City is among them. However, pollution affects places which are far away from contaminated urban areas, thus damaging eco&#150;systems. Environmental pollution is responsible for an alarming and increasing list of illnesses in humans, animals and plants. This has generated an international interest in this problem. From the 187 chemical agents considered toxic for living organisms, the Inter&#150;Government Committee for the Negotiation of Persistent Organic Pollutants (Pops) has catalogued 12 as the most hazardous for life. Among them are the so&#150;called polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). PCBs are a family of 209 structurally chlorinated compounds made up of chlorine, carbon and hydrogen. These compounds are chemically and thermally stable, insoluble in water, non&#150;flammable, electrically resistant, with low volatility at normal temperatures, and bio&#150;degradable only at high temperatures (1200&deg;C). One of their main disadvantages is that they are subject to a process of bioaccumulation where their concentration increases along the food chain. Their physical properties make them widely used in industry, mainly in the electrical and building areas. Not long after PCBs were manufactured, it was determined that food for human intake such as milk, fish and eggs, to mention just a few, presented higher PCBs concentrations than those allowed by the Organism for US Environmental Protection (0.0005mg/l). It has been demonstrated that PCBs can cause damage to the endocrine, immunologic and Nervous Systems, among others. The underlying mechanism of action of these compounds is through the activation of the aril hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a ligand&#150;dependent cytosolic transcription factor. PCBs act like ligands and, given their lipophilic properties, enter cells by passive diffusion. Two co&#150;chaperone proteins are bound to AhR to form an oligomer which dissociates when binding to a PCB. After ligand binding, a heterodimer is formed which translocates into the nucleus and links to specific DNA regions; this in turn regulates the transcription velocity of specific genes and produces genetic alterations that modify processes and functions in the cell.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">PCBs belong in the group of chemicals considered endocrine disruptors. Damage caused by these compounds can be irreversible. In the endocrine system they interfere with the production and regulation of steroid and thyroid hormones, acting as agonists or antagonists of hormone receptors. They impair endocrine metabolic pathways, such as those of thyroid hormones (T<sub>3</sub> and T<sub>4</sub>), and inhibit carrier proteins such as transthyretin.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Contaminants that harm the endocrine system also affect the reproductive function and disrupt various aspects of sexuality. In males, PCBs inhibit the synthesis of testosterone, alter masculinity, reduce sperm motility and the capacity of binding and penetrating the ovule, induce changes in the shape of the penis as well as its size, retard or inhibit testicle descent, and can generate testicular cancer. In females, they can cause early menarche (first menstruation), enhanced duration of menstrual bleeding, urogenital malformations, endometriosis, spontaneous abortion, fetal death, premature delivery and low&#150;weight in offspring. Our group, as well as other research groups, has encountered that PCB administration to gestating rats causes an increment in offspring mortality, fetal miscarriages, low bodily weight of the offspring and a reduction in the number of males per litter.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">The immunological system is sensitive to chemicals such as PCBs which originate an immunological response; they act as immunotoxins that cause thymus atrophy, affect innate immunity, compromise host resistance and immunity mediated by B and T cells, as well as humoral immunity.</font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">PCBs and their metabolites are carcinogenic and act as general cancer promoters by enhancing the effects of other substances through the generation of oxygen reactive compounds that can induce DNA oxidative damage. Chronic PCB exposure can cause chromosomal aberrations; these compounds have been related to all types of cancer: mammary gland, liver, biliary tract, gastrointestinal, skin (especially malignant melanomas), lung, pancreas and brain.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">There is evidence that organisms are more vulnerable to PCB exposure during the early embryonic stages. These compounds can cross the placenta and affect the fetus; when they are present in human milk they keep the offspring under high PCB levels thus altering development. In addition, they can contribute to the interruption of growth and development of brain, organs and tissues. As a result, malfunctions or miscarriage occur.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">PCBs are involved in the neurodegeneration process since they affect dopaminergic neurons in caudate nucleus, ventral tegmental area and substantia nigra. These compounds disrupt neuronal mechanisms such as vesicular transport and dopamine release which lead to cellular death similar to that described for diseases such as Parkinson's.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Perinatal exposure to PCBs is associated with neurodevelopmental deficiencies of infants which consist of dysfunctions at the neuropsychological level such as in verbal learning (syllables, words and concepts), performance functions, changes in attention and psychomotor development. Acute or chronic exposure to PCBs is associated with cephalea, insomnia, nervousness, irritability, depression and anxiety; these symptoms in turn modify behavior.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">At the neurophysiological level, these contaminants impair excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission in the hippocampus, inhibit long&#150;term potentiation and synaptic plasticity, alter some mechanisms of cell signaling (GABAergic pathway), and deteriorate learning and memory. Recently, these compounds have been related to cognitive alterations.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Our group demonstrated that the administration of PCB&#150;77 and Aroclor 1254 during gestation inhibits the enzymatic activity of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) in 10&#150;day postnatal pups. These rats presented degenerative morphological neuronal changes such as shrinking, picnosis, loss of neurites, neuronal death and decrease in the number of nitrergic neurons in the paraventricular and supraoptic hypothalamic nuclei. We also reported that in these nuclei a decrease in immunoreactivity to vasopressin and neuronal NOS is observed.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">The evidence in PCB studies is conclusive. The exposure to these environmental toxins interferes with the functioning of various organs and systems such as the endocrine and Nervous Systems, not only in humans but also in animals. These contaminants pose a risk factor for a wide number of neurodegenerative alterations. The main concern of health organizations in relation to the effects of these compounds is during the perinatal stage, since during this period developmental processes are more susceptible to this type of environmental toxins. Even though PCBs are not produced at a large scale, they are present in the environment due to accidental spillages, release during improper transportation and through the burning of products containing them. Currently, populations are exposed to concentrations exceeding the tolerable limits recommended by the World Health Organization. In Mexico, there has not been a serious survey of existing levels in persons or food products; some reports exist concerning accidental PCB contamination in marginal populations and in contaminated marine species in the country. However, unlike other countries, there are no studies on the damage of these contaminants in the Mexican population; there is scarce research on the effects of these toxins. Our group is currently investigating the alterations these contaminants cause at the neuroendocrine level, as well as in some aspects of learning and memory. Given the relevance of the effects of PCBs on health, it is important that health institutions encourage and support research in this field.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Key words:</b> Pollutants, neurodevelopment, neurotoxicity, PCBs, askarels.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Resumen</b></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La contaminaci&oacute;n ambiental es un grave problema mundial que actualmente preocupa a la comunidad internacional. Las grandes ciudades industrializadas, como la de M&eacute;xico, son las m&aacute;s contaminadas. Sin embargo, la contaminaci&oacute;n llega hasta zonas alejadas de donde se produce y afecta los ecosistemas. La contaminaci&oacute;n es responsable de una alarmante y creciente lista de enfermedades en el hombre, los animales y las plantas. Los bifenilos policlorados (PCB) se catalogaron dentro de los 12 contaminantes org&aacute;nicos m&aacute;s t&oacute;xicos para los organismos vivos. Sus propiedades f&iacute;sicas hicieron que se usaran ampliamente en la industria. No son biodegradables y se acumulan en el ambiente, se transfieren dentro de la cadena alimenticia y tienden a concentrarse m&aacute;s al final de &eacute;sta, por lo que en los alimentos se determinaron concentraciones que sobrepasaban los l&iacute;mites establecidos por el Organismo de Protecci&oacute;n del Ambiente de los Estados Unidos. Se demostr&oacute; que los PCB afectan la funci&oacute;n de los sistemas endocrino, inmunol&oacute;gico y nervioso, entre otros. El mecanismo de acci&oacute;n descrito para los PCB, es por medio de la activaci&oacute;n del receptor aril hidrocarburo, un factor de transcripci&oacute;n citos&oacute;lico dependiente de ligando. Los PCB act&uacute;an como ligandos y son lipof&iacute;licos, por lo que entran a la c&eacute;lula y llegan al n&uacute;cleo para unirse al ADN, lo cual altera la trascripci&oacute;n de genes espec&iacute;ficos y provoca alteraciones gen&eacute;ticas que conducen a cambios en los procesos y funciones celulares.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los PCB interfieren con la producci&oacute;n y regulaci&oacute;n de las hormonas esteroides y tiroideas al actuar como antagonistas o agonistas de los receptores hormonales. Afectan la funci&oacute;n reproductora y alteran diferentes aspectos de la sexualidad. Como otros grupos de investigaci&oacute;n, el nuestro ha observado que la administraci&oacute;n de PCB a ratas gestantes causa un incremento de la mortalidad de las cr&iacute;as, p&eacute;rdida fetal, peso corporal bajo y una reducci&oacute;n en el n&uacute;mero de machos por camada. Los PCB act&uacute;an como inmunotoxinas que causan la atrofia del timo y afectan la respuesta inmune. Los PCB y sus metabolitos son carcinog&eacute;nicos debido a la generaci&oacute;n de especies reactivas de ox&iacute;geno que pueden producir da&ntilde;o oxidativo al ADN, provocar aberraciones cromos&oacute;micas y generar c&aacute;ncer de mama, h&iacute;gado, tracto biliar, gastrointestinal, cerebral, etc.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los organismos son m&aacute;s vulnerables a la exposici&oacute;n de los PCB durante las etapas tempranas del desarrollo embrionario. Los PCB atraviesan la placenta y llegan al feto, permanecen en la leche materna y mantienen niveles altos en las cr&iacute;as. Los PCB afectan as&iacute; el desarrollo del Sistema Nervioso, los &oacute;rganos y los tejidos, y pueden llevar a la p&eacute;rdida fetal. Tambi&eacute;n se asocian a deficiencias en el neurodesarrollo del ni&ntilde;o y a alteraciones neuropsicol&oacute;gicas en la atenci&oacute;n, el aprendizaje y el desarrollo psicomotor. La exposici&oacute;n aguda o cr&oacute;nica a los PCB se asocia con cefalea, insomnio, nerviosismo, irritabilidad, depresi&oacute;n y ansiedad. Los PCB participan en el proceso de neurodegeneraci&oacute;n al afectar el sistema dopamin&eacute;rgico. En el nivel neurofisiol&oacute;gico, afectan la transmisi&oacute;n sin&aacute;ptica excitatoria e inhibitoria hipocampal; inhiben la potenciaci&oacute;n a largo plazo y la plasticidad sin&aacute;ptica; alteran mecanismos de se&ntilde;alizaci&oacute;n celular como el GABA&eacute;rgico, en el aprendizaje y la memoria, y producen alteraciones cognoscitivas. Nuestro grupo demostr&oacute; que la administraci&oacute;n de los PCB durante la gestaci&oacute;n inhibe la actividad de la enzima sintasa del &oacute;xido n&iacute;trico y provoca cambios neuronales morfol&oacute;gicos degenerativos en los n&uacute;cleos paraventricular y supra&oacute;ptico hipotal&aacute;micos.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Las evidencias de los estudios realizados con los PCB son concluyentes en cuanto a que la exposici&oacute;n a estos t&oacute;xicos ambientales interfiere con el funcionamiento de diferentes &oacute;rganos y  sistemas y a que son un factor de riesgo para un amplio n&uacute;mero de alteraciones neurodegenerativas. Actualmente, las poblaciones est&aacute;n expuestas a concentraciones que exceden los niveles l&iacute;mite tolerables recomendados por la Organizaci&oacute;n Mundial de la Salud. Nuestro grupo est&aacute; analizando las alteraciones de estos contaminantes en el nivel neuroendocrino y en algunos aspectos del aprendizaje y la memoria. Dada la relevancia de los efectos de los PCB en la salud y de la falta en M&eacute;xico de una valoraci&oacute;n de los niveles de los PCB existentes en personas y alimentos, es importante que las instituciones de salud fomenten y apoyen las investigaciones en esta &aacute;rea.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Palabras clave: </b>Contaminantes, neurodesarrollo, neurotoxicidad, PCB, askareles.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>INTRODUCCI&Oacute;N</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La contaminaci&oacute;n ambiental es un grave problema mundial que actualmente preocupa a la comunidad internacional. Las grandes ciudades industrializadas son las m&aacute;s contaminadas y entre ellas est&aacute; la Ciudad de M&eacute;xico. Sin embargo, esta contaminaci&oacute;n alcanza hasta lugares lejanos no industrializados, con lo que afecta a los animales y al hombre. La contaminaci&oacute;n ambiental es responsable de una alarmante y creciente lista de enfermedades en el hombre. De los 187 qu&iacute;micos considerados como t&oacute;xicos para los organismos vivos, el Comit&eacute; Intergubernamental de Negociaci&oacute;n sobre Contaminantes Org&aacute;nicos Persistentes (COP) catalog&oacute; a 12 como los m&aacute;s t&oacute;xicos. Dentro de &eacute;stos est&aacute;n los bifenilos policlorados (PCB, por sus siglas en ingl&eacute;s), com&uacute;nmente llamados askareles, y las dioxinas, compuestos contenidos en los insecticidas. Los PCB son una familia de m&aacute;s de 209 compuestos qu&iacute;micos estructuralmente relacionados (cong&eacute;neres), formados por cloro, carbono e hidr&oacute;geno (<a href="#f1">figura 1</a>). Su f&oacute;rmula general es C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>10</sub>&#150;nCln, cada PCB consta de dos anillos benc&eacute;nicos y de uno a diez &aacute;tomos de cloro. Los PCB se forman por cloraci&oacute;n electrof&iacute;lica del bifenilo con gas cloro en alguna de las 10 diferentes posiciones (<a href="#f1">figura 1</a>). El n&uacute;mero (1&#150;10) y la posici&oacute;n de los &aacute;tomos de cloro determinan sus propiedades qu&iacute;micas y son mayoritarios los PCB que tienen de dos a siete cloros. Dependiendo de la posici&oacute;n del cloro en los enlaces de carbono&#150;carbono de los anillos arom&aacute;ticos, se designan como orto, meta y para. F&iacute;sicamente, los PCB presentan un aspecto de fluidos aceitosos hasta resinas duras y transparentes o cristales blancos, dependiendo del grado de cloraci&oacute;n de la mol&eacute;cula. Los PCB son compuestos qu&iacute;mica y t&eacute;rmicamente estables, insolubles en agua, no son inflamables, no conducen la electricidad, tienen baja volatilidad a temperaturas normales, se degradan a altas temperaturas, no son biodegradables y son bioacumulables. Precisamente, algunas de estas propiedades hicieron que los PCB fueran importantes para el sector industrial y comercial. Se usaron como enfriadores y lubricantes, principalmente para fluidos diel&eacute;ctricos de condensadores, transformadores y balastros de luces fluorescentes; en sistemas hidr&aacute;ulicos de equipos de miner&iacute;a como adhesivos y lubricantes; en la industria de la impresi&oacute;n en tintas, selladores en empaques, pinturas y barnices, y en el papel calca; en la construcci&oacute;n en guarniciones de frenos y asfalto, en tuber&iacute;as de gas, edificios, naves y en la investigaci&oacute;n. Sintetizados por primera vez en 1881 por Schmitt&#150;Schulz, en Alemania, la empresa Monsanto de Estados Unidos inici&oacute; la producci&oacute;n industrial en 1929. Se estima que entre 1929 y 1977 se produjeron 440 mil toneladas de PCB en Estados Unidos.<sup>1,2</sup></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><a name="f1"></a></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><img src="/img/revistas/sm/v32n4/a9f1.jpg"></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Aunque la producci&oacute;n de PCB se prohibi&oacute; en Estados Unidos y en otros pa&iacute;ses del mundo desde 1979, estos qu&iacute;micos a&uacute;n persisten en el aire, agua y suelo, por lo que se bioacumulan y se transfieren dentro de la cadena alimenticia<sup>3&#150;6</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La metodolog&iacute;a qu&iacute;mica para determinar, cuantificar y degradar los PCB fue resultado de la investigaci&oacute;n y el desarrollo en el campo de la qu&iacute;mica anal&iacute;tica ambiental de los &uacute;ltimos a&ntilde;os.<sup>7</sup> Existen varios m&eacute;todos anal&iacute;ticos que ayudan a detectar y monitorear los PCB. Aunque ninguno de ellos es sencillo, estos m&eacute;todos se utilizan para muestras de agua, aire, suelo, suero y tejidos. Fueron aprobados por diferentes asociaciones, como: Environmental Protection Agency,<sup>8</sup> the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Association of Official Analytical Chemist (AOAC) y la American Public Health Association (APHA).<sup>8&#150;10</sup> Las t&eacute;cnicas m&aacute;s empleadas para la detecci&oacute;n de los PCB y sus mezclas, como el Aroclor, son: la cromatograf&iacute;a de gases, cromatograf&iacute;a de gases de alta resoluci&oacute;n, la cromatograf&iacute;a de permeaci&oacute;n por gel, la detecci&oacute;n por captura de electrones, la espectroscop&iacute;a de masas y de ionizaci&oacute;n qu&iacute;mica de iones negativos, espectroscop&iacute;a de masas de alta resoluci&oacute;n y por diluci&oacute;n de is&oacute;topo.<sup>11 </sup>Actualmente, el procedimiento m&aacute;s empleado es el de cromatograf&iacute;a de gases de alta resoluci&oacute;n llamado m&eacute;todo 1668, el cual fue desarrollado a principios de 1990 por las agencias gubernamentales EPA y la Oficina de Ciencia y Tecnolog&iacute;a de Estados Unidos. Tambi&eacute;n existen los m&eacute;todos bioanal&iacute;ticos como el ensayo inmunoabsorbente ligado a enzimas (ELISA, por sus siglas en ingl&eacute;s), con el cual se cuantifican los PCB en tejidos.<sup>12,13</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Estos m&eacute;todos pusieron en evidencia que alimentos de consumo humano, como carnes (porcina, vacuna, peces y aves), leche, huevos de gallina, vegetales, granos, etc., contienen altas concentraciones de PCB que sobrepasan lo establecido por las asociaciones internacionales (<a href="/img/revistas/sm/v32n4/a9c1.jpg" target="_blank">cuadro I</a>). La EPA estableci&oacute; un l&iacute;mite de 0.0005 mg de PCB por litro de agua para beber. La Food and Drug Administration (FDA) obliga a que la comida para ni&ntilde;os (huevos, leche y otros productos de consumo diario) contenga no m&aacute;s de 0.2&#150;3 partes por mill&oacute;n (ppm) de PCB.<sup>11</sup> Para degradar los PCB, se desarrollaron m&eacute;todos f&iacute;sicos, microbiol&oacute;gicos y qu&iacute;micos. Los m&eacute;todos f&iacute;sicos consisten en incinerarlos a temperaturas de 1200&deg;C, durante segundos, en presencia de aceite combustible y un exceso de ox&iacute;geno; por ultrasonido se degradan con la aplicaci&oacute;n de ondas ultras&oacute;nicas de alto poder que generan burbujas y cavidades que los fragmentan creando regiones de extrema presi&oacute;n y temperatura que los destruyen; por irradiaci&oacute;n se aplican rayos gama a una mezcla desoxigenada de PCB en alcohol isoprop&iacute;lico o aceite mineral; los PCB se separan en su forma inorg&aacute;nica de cloro y bifenilo.<sup>7</sup> El m&eacute;todo microbiol&oacute;gico consiste en la biodegradaci&oacute;n por microorganismos mediante tres v&iacute;as: 1. respiraci&oacute;n aer&oacute;bica, 2. respiraci&oacute;n anaer&oacute;bica y 3. fermentaci&oacute;n en ausencia de ox&iacute;geno. Los m&eacute;todos qu&iacute;micos incluyen sustituci&oacute;n arom&aacute;tica nucleof&iacute;lica, reacciones con metales altamente electropositivos y destrucci&oacute;n atmosf&eacute;rica de los PCB v&iacute;a ataque nucleof&iacute;lico por radicales OH.<sup>7</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>MECANISMO DE ACCI&Oacute;N DE LOS PCB</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La estructura lipof&iacute;lica de los PCB permite su entrada a la c&eacute;lula a trav&eacute;s de la membrana celular por difusi&oacute;n pasiva y llega al citosol. Diversos efectos biol&oacute;gicos de los PCB y las dioxinas est&aacute;n mediados por la activaci&oacute;n del receptor aril hidrocarburo, un factor de transcripci&oacute;n ligando dependiente (AhR).<sup>14</sup> El mecanismo de acci&oacute;n propuesto es que en el citosol los PCB funcionan como ligandos del receptor AhR, al que se unen con una alta afinidad en el rango nanomolar.<sup>15</sup> El AhR es miembro de la familia de los receptores esteroides y es un factor de transcripci&oacute;n activado por ligandos que controla la expresi&oacute;n de varios genes, entre los que est&aacute;n los de los citocromos. El AhR tiene unidos dos mon&oacute;meros de hsp90 (<i>heat shock proteins </i>90) y uno de XAP2 (<i>hepatitis virus B X&#150;associated protein </i>2), una prote&iacute;na que se identific&oacute; previamente como cochaperona (<a href="#f2">figura 2</a>). La uni&oacute;n del ligando, es decir, el PCB, produce la disociaci&oacute;n del olig&oacute;mero, desplazando las prote&iacute;nas hsp90. A partir de aqu&iacute; se proponen dos rutas: en una hay un aumento r&aacute;pido de la actividad tirosinquinasa y en la otra se forma un heterod&iacute;mero con el translocador nuclear de AhR (ARNT) para formar el complejo L&#150;AhR&#150;ARNT. Este heterod&iacute;mero se transloca al n&uacute;cleo para unirse a regiones espec&iacute;ficas del ADN, como los genes DRE (<i>dioxin responsive element</i>), y posteriormente se une a otras regiones del ADN con una secuencia espec&iacute;fica de reconocimiento (GCCTG) para regular la velocidad de trascripci&oacute;n de genes espec&iacute;ficos, lo cual implica una activaci&oacute;n de genes como Cyt&#150;P450 CYP1A1, CYP1A2 y CYP1B1.<sup>16&#150;18</sup> Los cambios en la expresi&oacute;n g&eacute;nica conducen a alteraciones de los procesos celulares y sus funciones.<sup>19</sup> Uno de &eacute;stos es el incremento de la actividad del citocromo P&#150;450 1A1, que provoca la generaci&oacute;n de metabolitos t&oacute;xicos.<sup>20</sup></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><a name="f2"></a></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><img src="/img/revistas/sm/v32n4/a9f2.jpg"></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>EFECTOS DE LOS PCB EN DIFERENTES SISTEMAS</b></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Sistema endocrino</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Al actuar a trav&eacute;s de la v&iacute;a del receptor AhR, Los PCB mono&#150;orto, no&#150;orto y las dioxinas afectan a la mayor&iacute;a de las hormonas del sistema endocrino, entre las que se cuentan las hormonas tiroideas,<sup>21&#150;24</sup> los estr&oacute;genos, los andr&oacute;genos y la corticosterona.<sup>25</sup> As&iacute; como las dioxinas, los PCB interfieren significativamente con la producci&oacute;n y regulaci&oacute;n de las hormonas tiroideas, ya que tienen una estructura qu&iacute;mica parecida, poseen caracter&iacute;sticas de uni&oacute;n similares y act&uacute;an como antagonistas o agonistas de estas hormonas.<sup>26,27</sup> En las ratas adultas, la exposici&oacute;n a los PCB induce un incremento en el volumen de las c&eacute;lulas foliculares tiroideas, seguida de una hiperplasia de los tirocitos y una hipotiroxemia con una reducci&oacute;n de los niveles sangu&iacute;neos de tiroxina (T<sub>4</sub>).<sup>28&#150;35</sup> Los PCB afectan no s&oacute;lo a las hormonas triyodotironina (T<sub>3</sub>) y T<sub>4</sub>,<sup>27</sup> sino tambi&eacute;n a los componentes de su v&iacute;a metab&oacute;lica como las prote&iacute;nas acarreadoras (transtiretina) y los receptores.<sup>36</sup> Algunos estudios reportan que la hormona estimulante tiroidea (TSH) s&eacute;rica se incrementa por exposici&oacute;n a los PCB en respuesta a los bajos niveles de T<sub>4</sub>,<sup>37</sup> mientras que otros estudios no reportan cambios de la TSH.<sup>38</sup> Las hormonas tiroideas son esenciales para el desarrollo perinatal. El hipotiroidismo inducido por los PCB afecta algunos mecanismos, principalmente los que se llevan a cabo durante el neurodesarrollo;<sup>39</sup> esto y otras alteraciones del desarrollo perinatal se describen m&aacute;s adelante. En la mayor&iacute;a de los organismos estudiados (humanos y roedores) se ha visto que la exposici&oacute;n a diferentes cong&eacute;neres de los PCB causa una reducci&oacute;n de la talla y del peso.<sup>40</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Nuestro grupo demostr&oacute; que la administraci&oacute;n de PCB&#150;77 (3 mg/kg/d) del d&iacute;a 10 al 19 de la gestaci&oacute;n inhibe la actividad de la sintasa del &oacute;xido n&iacute;trico (NOS) en las cr&iacute;as de 10 d&iacute;as postnatales. Adem&aacute;s se presentaron cambios morfol&oacute;gicos degenerativos como: encogimiento, picnosis, p&eacute;rdida de las prolongaciones neuronales, muerte neuronal y un decremento en el n&uacute;mero de neuronas nitr&eacute;rgicas en los n&uacute;cleos paraventricular y supra&oacute;ptico hipotal&aacute;micos (<a href="#f3">figura 3</a>). Estos n&uacute;cleos hipotal&aacute;micos regulan el equilibrio hidroelectrol&iacute;tico a trav&eacute;s de las hormonas vasopresina y oxitocina. En condiciones de deshidrataci&oacute;n se produce un incremento fisiol&oacute;gico de la inmunorreactividad a las hormonas vasopresina y oxitocina y de la actividad de la NOS en los n&uacute;cleos paraventricular, supra&oacute;ptico y perifornical hipotal&aacute;micos. Cuando se someten a deshidrataci&oacute;n ratas de tres meses de edad, expuestas prenatalmente al PCB&#150;77 o al Aroclor 1254, se observa que no se produce el aumento fisiol&oacute;gico esperado de la actividad de la NOS. Por el contrario, existe un decremento significativo de esta actividad y tambi&eacute;n de la inmunorreactividad a la vasopresina en estos n&uacute;cleos. Estos resultados sugieren que los PCB afectan la regulaci&oacute;n del equilibrio hidroelectrol&iacute;tico.<sup>41</sup> Coburn et al. (2005, 2007)<sup>42,43</sup> demostraron que las ratas expuestas a los PCB presentan una disminuci&oacute;n en la liberaci&oacute;n de vasopresina y &oacute;xido n&iacute;trico en el n&uacute;cleo supra&oacute;ptico y un aumento exagerado (800%) en los niveles de vasopresina plasm&aacute;tica en respuesta a la deshidrataci&oacute;n. El impacto de los PCB tiene un efecto sobre el estricto control de la osmolaridad plasm&aacute;tica durante el incremento de la demanda fisiol&oacute;gica.</font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><a name="f3"></a></font></p>     <p align="center"><font face="verdana" size="2"><img src="/img/revistas/sm/v32n4/a9f3.jpg"></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Aunque la diabetes no se considera una enfermedad inducida por el ambiente, existen evidencias fuertes que se&ntilde;alan que la exposici&oacute;n a los PCB contribuye a la incidencia de este padecimiento.<sup>44</sup> El Instituto de Medicina de la Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Estados Unidos report&oacute; una relaci&oacute;n significativa entre la exposici&oacute;n a grandes concentraciones de PCB y dioxinas con el tipo de diabetes e inicio del padecimiento.<sup>45</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Sistema reproductor y sexualidad</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Al da&ntilde;ar el sistema endocrino, los PCB y las dioxinas afectan tambi&eacute;n a los sistemas relacionados, como el reproductivo, y alteran diferentes aspectos de la sexualidad. En todos los estudios realizados en humanos y en otras especies animales queda claro que los PCB afectan la reproducci&oacute;n, aun cuando est&eacute;n expuestos a niveles bajos. Los da&ntilde;os que causan los PCB, al igual que los de otros disruptores endocrinos, son irreversibles<sup>24,41</sup> y los individuos son m&aacute;s sensibles cuando se exponen durante el desarrollo temprano (<i>in utero</i>). Los PCB son potentes inhibidores de la s&iacute;ntesis de la testosterona.<sup>46</sup> Las ratas macho expuestas a los fluidos de transformadores que contienen PCB muestran un decremento de esta hormona.<sup>47 </sup>Adem&aacute;s, los PCB compiten con la testosterona por la uni&oacute;n a su receptor, lo cual reduce la masculinidad.<sup>48</sup> Los niveles altos de PCB se correlacionan con la reducci&oacute;n de la movilidad de los espermatozoides<sup>49,50</sup> y de la capacidad de unirse y penetrar en el ovocito.<sup>51</sup> Se reportaron alteraciones peneanas como reducci&oacute;n en el tama&ntilde;o y la forma.<sup>52</sup> Retrasan el descenso de los test&iacute;culos o producen criptorquidia y se asocian a c&aacute;ncer testicular.<sup>53</sup> En mujeres, la exposici&oacute;n a los PCB causa la aparici&oacute;n temprana de la menarquia (primer periodo menstrual) y aumento en la duraci&oacute;n del sangrado menstrual.<sup>54,55</sup> Tambi&eacute;n causan malformaciones urogenitales, endometriosis,<sup>56,57</sup>abortos espont&aacute;neos, muerte fetal, partos prematuros y peso bajo de los hijos o cr&iacute;as.<sup>40,41 </sup>Adem&aacute;s, se ha relacionado con una reducci&oacute;n significativa en el n&uacute;mero de hijos varones.<sup>56&#150;60</sup> Al administrar PCB&#150;77 (3 a 15 mg/kg/d&iacute;a) a ratas gestantes, nuestro grupo observ&oacute; un incremento de la mortalidad de las cr&iacute;as, p&eacute;rdida fetal, bajo peso corporal a los 10 d&iacute;as posnatales y una reducci&oacute;n en el n&uacute;mero de machos por camada.<sup>41</sup> Otras alteraciones observadas son un aumento en la conducta de acicalamiento hacia las cr&iacute;as, el cuidado y la permanencia en el nido.<sup>61,62</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Sistema inmunol&oacute;gico</b></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">El sistema inmune comprende una red integrada por tejidos y tipos celulares sensibles a los contaminantes ambientales como los PCB. Est&aacute; bien documentado que, en animales de experimentaci&oacute;n como la rata, el conejo y el mono Rhesus, los PCB act&uacute;an como potentes inmunotoxinas que causan atrofia del timo y afectan la inmunidad innata, la resistencia del hospedero y la inmunidad mediada por c&eacute;lulas B y T, as&iacute; como la inmunidad humoral y en general la respuesta inmune.<sup>63&#150;65</sup> La v&iacute;a dependiente del receptor AhR.<sup>66,67</sup> es el mecanismo de acci&oacute;n por el que se genera la inmunotoxicidad inducida por los PCB. Los estudios en humanos demuestran que la exposici&oacute;n a los PCB incrementa la incidencia de infecciones. En Taiw&aacute;n se estudi&oacute; la funci&oacute;n del sistema inmune en un grupo de pacientes que consumi&oacute; aceite de arroz contaminado accidentalmente con PCB. Este grupo present&oacute; infecciones del tracto respiratorio y de la piel, decremento en la concentraci&oacute;n de las inmunoglobulinas IgA e IgM, y una reducci&oacute;n en el porcentaje de linfocitos T totales, linfocitos T activos y linfocitos T&#150;ayudadores.<sup>68</sup> A su vez, el grupo de Weisglas (1995)<sup>69</sup> demostr&oacute; que los ni&ntilde;os holandeses de tres meses de edad, expuestos a una mezcla de PCB y dioxinas, ten&iacute;an niveles m&aacute;s bajos de monocitos y granulocitos que los ni&ntilde;os no expuestos.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En otro estudio de este mismo grupo, en 207 pares madre&#150;hijo se cuantificaron los niveles de PCB 118, 138, 153 y 180 en el suero de las madres e hijos y en la leche materna. La concentraci&oacute;n de PCB en los hijos fue de 5.9 ppb, cuando el nivel no t&oacute;xico es inferior a 1 ppb. Estos ni&ntilde;os presentaron m&aacute;s congesti&oacute;n pulmonar, tos y flemas, comparados con los no expuestos. Los autores concluyen que cuanto m&aacute;s alta es la concentraci&oacute;n de PCB, mayor es la frecuencia y la gravedad de las infecciones como consecuencia de la supresi&oacute;n del sistema inmune.<sup>69,70</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Sistema Nervioso</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Neurodesarrollo</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En humanos y animales expuestos a ellos en la etapa perinatal, se demostr&oacute; que los PCB y las dioxinas contribuyen a la interrupci&oacute;n del crecimiento y desarrollo del cerebro, afectan las funciones cerebrales o llevan a la p&eacute;rdida fetal. Los PCB, en especial los coplanares, tienen un efecto mayor durante el desarrollo que en la etapa adulta y esto se debe a que los organismos en desarrollo son m&aacute;s sensibles a estos t&oacute;xicos.<sup>71&#150;73</sup> Los PCB son capaces de atravesar la placenta y pasar al feto, y permanecen en la leche materna, manteniendo en las cr&iacute;as niveles elevados que afectan el neurodesarrollo.<sup>74</sup> Se sabe que las hormonas tiroideas son muy importantes para el desarrollo normal del cerebro antes y despu&eacute;s del nacimiento.<sup>31,75,76</sup> Los PCB desplazan la tiroxina de su prote&iacute;na acarreadora, la transtiretina fetal, que permite que la hormona tiroidea pueda entrar en el cerebro fetal;<sup>77</sup> al interferir con esta uni&oacute;n, los PCB tienen el potencial para alterar el desarrollo normal del cerebro.<sup>78</sup> En los humanos no se afectan los niveles s&eacute;ricos de la prote&iacute;na acarreadora de la tiroxina (TBG, <i>thyroxine&#150;binding&#150;globuliri</i>).<sup>79</sup> Los estudios audiom&eacute;tricos hechos en ratas expuestas durante el desarrollo a una mezcla de PCB Aroclor 1254 demostraron que el sistema auditivo est&aacute; afectado, ya que hay una reducci&oacute;n de la audici&oacute;n a bajas frecuencias.<sup>75,80</sup> Estos estudios sugieren que el da&ntilde;o auditivo se ocasion&oacute; por la reducci&oacute;n de los niveles s&eacute;ricos de las hormonas tiroideas, inducidos por los PCB, ya que estas hormonas son necesarias para el desarrollo normal de la c&oacute;clea.<sup>81</sup> Los PCB da&ntilde;an las c&eacute;lulas pilosas de la membrana basal, &aacute;rea responsable de la audici&oacute;n a bajas frecuencias.<sup>82</sup> Kenet et al. (2007)<sup>83</sup> reportaron que las cr&iacute;as de ratas gestantes a las que se administr&oacute; PCB&#150;95 por tres semanas presentaron una sensibilidad y respuesta auditiva normales en las neuronas localizadas en el tallo cerebral y una respuesta anormales en las neuronas de la corteza auditiva primaria (A1). Lo anterior se mostr&oacute; en un mapa audiom&eacute;trico donde se midieron la intensidad y la frecuencia auditivas. El mapa present&oacute; alteraciones en la organizaci&oacute;n tonotopogr&aacute;fica, en los campos receptivos y en la plasticidad de la corteza auditiva primaria. Este estudio sugiere que la exposici&oacute;n a PCB altera el desarrollo auditivo cortical. Por otro lado, Fritsche et al. (2005)<sup>84</sup> observaron que en los cultivos de c&eacute;lulas progenitoras neuronales normales de humano, que dan origen a neuronas, astrocitos y oligodendrocitos, cuando se exponen al PCB&#150;118 o a la hormona T<sub>3</sub> se incrementa la formaci&oacute;n de oligodendrocitos de forma dosis dependiente. Este efecto fue espec&iacute;fico del cong&eacute;nere empleado, ya que con el PCB&#150;126 coplanar no se vio este efecto, que es bloqueado por el &aacute;cido retinoico y el antagonista NH&#150;3 del receptor de la hormona tiroidea, tal como sucede con la T<sub>3</sub>. Estos resultados sugieren que el PCB&#150;118 mimetiza la v&iacute;a de acci&oacute;n de la T<sub>3</sub>.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Neurodegeneraci&oacute;n</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La preocupaci&oacute;n mas reciente en salud publica se enfoca en la relaci&oacute;n entre contaminantes ambientales y neurodegeneraci&oacute;n, ya que se ha encontrado que el sistema dopamin&eacute;rgico puede ser afectado por los pesticidas, los metales pesados y los PCB.<sup>85&#150;87</sup> La neurotoxicidad de los PCB se atribuye a los coplanares ortoclorados, los cuales son los m&aacute;s abundantes en el medio ambiente.<sup>88</sup> Angus et al. (1994)<sup>89</sup> utilizaron cultivos de c&eacute;lulas PC12 que derivan del feocromocitoma y se usan como modelo de c&eacute;lulas dopamin&eacute;rgicas. Las c&eacute;lulas diferenciadas y no diferenciadas (se diferencian con un pretratamiento con el factor de crecimiento neuronal, NGF) se expusieron a Aroclor 1254 hasta por 15 d&iacute;as. Se observ&oacute; que en concentraciones de 100&micro;g/ml por tres d&iacute;as presentan una disminuci&oacute;n en los niveles de dopamina. La exposici&oacute;n por m&aacute;s tiempo caus&oacute; mayor sensibilidad a la dosis y una mortalidad de m&aacute;s de 85% de las c&eacute;lulas. Esta sensibilidad se asocia al grado de diferenciaci&oacute;n celular: cuanto menos diferenciada m&aacute;s efecto. La exposici&oacute;n a dosis bajas de Aroclor 1254 no afect&oacute; el crecimiento y estimul&oacute; la elongaci&oacute;n de las neuritas de forma similar al NGF en las c&eacute;lulas PC12. Corrigan et al. (1996)<sup>90</sup> estudiaron la concentraci&oacute;n de PCB en la corteza frontal de pacientes con Parkinson y controles (sin Parkinson) y no encontraron relaci&oacute;n con esta enfermedad. En otro estudio del mismo grupo de investigadores, encontraron que en el n&uacute;cleo caudado obtenido <i>post mortem </i>hab&iacute;a altas concentraciones de PCB totales y de insecticidas organoclorados. Estas evidencias sugieren que los PCB y los derivados de insecticidas organoclorados, cuya asociaci&oacute;n es frecuente, pueden contribuir a la patog&eacute;nesis de esta enfermedad.<sup>91</sup> En monos macacos expuestos por 20 semanas a PCB (3.2 mg/d&iacute;a), se observ&oacute; una disminuci&oacute;n de los niveles de dopamina en el n&uacute;cleo caudado y sustancia <i>nigra, </i>mientras que en el globo p&aacute;lido e hipocampo no hubo cambios.<sup>92</sup> Los PCB disminuyen la recaptura de neuro&#150;transmisores en los sinaptosomas del cerebro de la rata<sup>93</sup> y causan una inhibici&oacute;n del transportador monoamino vesicular (VMAT2) y del transportador de dopamina (DAT).<sup>93&#150;95</sup> Estudios <i>in vivo </i>muestran que la exposici&oacute;n a los PCB disminuye los niveles de las prote&iacute;nas DAT y VMAT2.<sup>96</sup> Malkiewicz et al. (2006)<sup>97</sup> administraron Aroclor 1254 (100&micro;g/g/d&iacute;a) a ratas durante seis d&iacute;as y reportaron que &eacute;ste causa una disminuci&oacute;n en la expresi&oacute;n de la &#945;&#150;sinucleina en cerebelo, corteza, hipocampo e hipot&aacute;lamo, y un incremento en la parkina y la sinaptofisina. Estas prote&iacute;nas intervienen en la funci&oacute;n sin&aacute;ptica y se asocian, como la prote&iacute;na precursora amiloidea, con las enfermedades neurodegenerativas.<sup>98&#150;102 </sup>La disminuci&oacute;n prolongada de los niveles de &#945;&#150;sinucle&iacute;na en el hipot&aacute;lamo puede promover un c&iacute;rculo vicioso, en el cual la elevaci&oacute;n de la dopamina citoplasm&aacute;tica, el estr&eacute;s oxidativo, la disfunci&oacute;n de la &#945;&#150;sinucle&iacute;na y un desajuste en la funci&oacute;n vesicular llevan a la p&eacute;rdida de las neuronas dopamin&eacute;rgicas.<sup>103</sup> Por otro lado, en cultivos de neuroblastos humanos SH&#150;SY5Y se observ&oacute; muerte celular de manera dosis dependiente cuando estos son expuestos por 24 horas a diferentes concentraciones de Aroclor 1254 (10 a 100&micro;g/ml). Esta muerte celular se reduce por la presencia de gadolinum (10 &micro;M), un bloqueador de canales de Ca<sup>2+</sup>. El Aroclor 1254 increment&oacute; el Ca<sup>2+</sup> citos&oacute;lico dependiente del Ca<sup>2+</sup> extracelular, lo que indujo un aumento del &oacute;xido n&iacute;trico (NO) por la activaci&oacute;n de la sintasa del &oacute;xido n&iacute;trico neuronal (nNOS) y la expresi&oacute;n de su isoforma &#946;. Este estudio sugiere que la muerte celular inducida por el Aroclor 1254, en este tipo celular, est&aacute; mediada por una activaci&oacute;n de la ruta cGMP/PKG, que es estimulada por la producci&oacute;n de NO.<sup>104</sup> Yuansheng Tan et al. (2004)<sup>105</sup> mostraron que la toxicidad producida por los PCB orto&#150;sustituidos en las c&eacute;lulas granulares cerebelares se debe a la elevaci&oacute;n del Ca<sup>2+</sup> intracelular, lo cual cambia el potencial de membrana mitocondrial y genera radicales libres que causan una r&aacute;pida p&eacute;rdida de la integridad de la membrana y muerte celular. Lee y Opanashuk (2004)<sup>106 </sup>determinaron el mecanismo por el cual se produce da&ntilde;o celular dopamin&eacute;rgico con la exposici&oacute;n a Aroclor 1254 en cultivos de la l&iacute;nea celular MN9D dopamin&eacute;rgica. Reportaron que la exposici&oacute;n a Aroclor 1254 induce un incremento en la producci&oacute;n de especies reactivas de ox&iacute;geno, lo que causa citotoxicidad y posteriormente muerte celular dependiente de la concentraci&oacute;n y el tiempo de exposici&oacute;n. El estudio sugiere que una concentraci&oacute;n subletal de PCB activa una ruta relacionada con el estr&eacute;s oxidativo, la cual interrumpe la funci&oacute;n de las neuronas dopamin&eacute;rgicas.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Efectos neuropsicol&oacute;gicos</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Se ha observado que los contaminantes ambientales pueden alterar aspectos de la conducta, tanto en ni&ntilde;os como en adultos. En la mayor&iacute;a de los estudios se reporta que, durante el neurodesarrollo, los contaminantes tienen un efecto mayor en el nivel neuropsicol&oacute;gico. La exposici&oacute;n aguda o cr&oacute;nica a los PCB se asocia con cefalea, insomnio, nerviosismo, irritabilidad, depresi&oacute;n y ansiedad. Fitzgerald et al. (2008)<sup>107</sup> realizaron un estudio en personas de 55 a 74 a&ntilde;os de edad que vivieron cerca de un r&iacute;o contaminado con PCB. Se les aplicaron 34 pruebas para la detecci&oacute;n de deficiencias en la cognici&oacute;n, la funci&oacute;n motora, el estado afectivo y la funci&oacute;n olfatoria. Se observ&oacute; as&iacute; una relaci&oacute;n entre concentraciones altas de PCB en el suero con un decremento en el aprendizaje verbal y un incremento en los s&iacute;ntomas de depresi&oacute;n. En otro estudio con mujeres de alrededor de 60 a&ntilde;os se observ&oacute; una mayor susceptibilidad a los contaminantes, pues &eacute;stas presentaron deficiencias en el aprendizaje y en la memoria visual comparadas con mujeres no expuestas.<sup>108</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">La regulaci&oacute;n de las emociones, la motivaci&oacute;n o la disminuci&oacute;n en la respuesta de alerta requiere la contribuci&oacute;n de la corteza ventromedial y superior prefontral. Los cambios en la atenci&oacute;n y otras funciones de ejecuci&oacute;n se asocian a la dopamina y a la actividad fronto&#150;estriatal en individuos sanos.<sup>109</sup> Estas funciones pueden alterarse por el efecto de los contaminantes ambientales. Estudios en ratas corroboraron que los PCB alteran la funci&oacute;n fronto&#150;estriatal y disminuyen los niveles de dopamina debido a que inhiben el transporte vesicular de la dopamina.<sup>95,110</sup> Por otro lado, se report&oacute; que los PCB producen la muerte de las neuronas dopamin&eacute;rgicas en el n&uacute;cleo estriado y en la corteza prefrontal.<sup>111</sup></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">En cuanto al desarrollo mental y psicomotor de ni&ntilde;os expuestos prenatalmente a los PCB, los reportes muestran diferentes resultados. Daniels et al. (2003)<sup>112</sup> reportaron que en ni&ntilde;os de ocho meses de edad no se aprecia un efecto evidente al aplicar la escala de Bayley de desarrollo infantil (1993)<sup>113</sup>. Sin embargo, Nakajima et al. (2006)<sup>114</sup> observaron en ni&ntilde;os de seis meses expuestos prenatalmente a PCB, un efecto m&aacute;s evidente en el desarrollo psicomotor que en el desarrollo mental aplicando la misma escala. Se observ&oacute; que los hijos (de aproximadamente 11 a&ntilde;os de edad) de un grupo de madres que consumieron pescado contaminado con PCB durante la gestaci&oacute;n, presentaron resultados bajos en la comprensi&oacute;n de la lectura, la concentraci&oacute;n y la memoria auditiva, y una disminuci&oacute;n en la memoria de corto plazo en evaluaciones verbales cuantitativas.<sup>115&#150;117</sup> En un estudio con ni&ntilde;os de siete a&ntilde;os se report&oacute; que no hubo efectos sobre el coeficiente intelectual.<sup>118</sup> La exposici&oacute;n al PCB&#150;126 incrementa los niveles de corticosterona en las cr&iacute;as de ratas expuestas y &eacute;stas presentan un estado de ansiedad, ya que se afecta el eje hipot&aacute;lamo&#150;hip&oacute;fisis&#150;adrenal.<sup>119</sup> Diversos factores como la alimentaci&oacute;n, la raza, el sexo, la edad o el tipo de contaminante influyen en el efecto de los PCB sobre las funciones neuropsicol&oacute;gicas.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>Neurofisiolog&iacute;a</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Diversos grupos de investigaci&oacute;n estudiaron los efectos de los PCB en el nivel neurofisiol&oacute;gico. &Eacute;stos se enfocan a la electrofisiolog&iacute;a de las neuronas afectadas, la neurotransmisi&oacute;n, el aprendizaje, la memoria y el comportamiento, y, recientemente, a su relaci&oacute;n con algunas alteraciones cognoscitivas. Los experimentos con modelos animales, como monos y ratas, mostraron que, en los primates, la exposici&oacute;n durante la gestaci&oacute;n al Aroclor 1016 y 1248 produjo un d&eacute;ficit en las pruebas de discriminaci&oacute;n de color, espacio y forma, as&iacute; como en la memoria y aprendizaje espacial.<sup>120,121</sup> Gilbert et al. (1999)<sup>122</sup> expusieron a un grupo de ratas gestantes al Aroclor 1254 y estudiaron a las cr&iacute;as a los tres y seis meses de edad. Reportaron un decremento de 50% en la potenciaci&oacute;n a largo plazo (LTP) en el giro dentado comparado con las controles. Por lo anterior sugieren que esta alteraci&oacute;n en la plasticidad sin&aacute;ptica del giro dentado persiste hasta la adultez y que se debe al tratamiento con Aroclor 1254. Otro estudio de este grupo de investigadores con el mismo protocolo de administraci&oacute;n de PCB demostr&oacute; que en las ratas adultas se modifica la transmisi&oacute;n sin&aacute;ptica excitatoria e inhibitoria en el giro dentado, y confirm&oacute; que los cambios en la plasticidad hipocampal son persistentes como resultado de la exposici&oacute;n al Aroclor 1254 <i>in utero</i>.<sup>123 </sup>Bushnell y Rice (1999)<sup>124</sup> expusieron perinatalmente a ratas al PCB&#150;126 (0.25&#150;1 mg/kg/d&iacute;a). A los tres y cuatro meses de edad se les administr&oacute; clorodiazep&oacute;xido (CDP), un activador del receptor GABA&#150;A, en dosis de 0, 3, 5 y 8mg/kg por v&iacute;a subcut&aacute;nea, 20 minutos antes de realizar tareas de atenci&oacute;n sostenida y recompensa de alimento. Los resultados mostraron un decremento en la ejecuci&oacute;n de estas pruebas en las ratas control (tal como se esperaba); en las ratas tratadas no se observ&oacute; afectaci&oacute;n por el CDP. Los autores sugieren que la exposici&oacute;n al PCB&#150;126 altera la v&iacute;a de se&ntilde;alizaci&oacute;n celular mediada por el sistema GABA&#150;&eacute;rgico. El grupo de Niemi (1998)<sup>125</sup> realiz&oacute; un estudio electrofisiol&oacute;gico <i>in vitro </i>en que se evalu&oacute; la potenciaci&oacute;n a largo plazo en rebanadas de hipocampo de rata joven. Los investigadores encontraron que la exposici&oacute;n a dosis bajas (l &micro;g/ml) de Aroclor 1254, bloquea la LTP en neuronas de la regi&oacute;n CA1 y que con dosis mayores se reduce la transmisi&oacute;n sin&aacute;ptica. Otros estudios muestran un bloqueo de la LTP en las neuronas colaterales de Schaffer y en las fibras musgosas de la regi&oacute;n CA3 del hipocampo al usar PCB&#150;77,<sup>126</sup> lo que apoya la hip&oacute;tesis de que los PCB afectan los procesos de aprendizaje y memoria.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>C&aacute;ncer</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Los PCB son carcinog&eacute;nicos y act&uacute;an como promotores generales del c&aacute;ncer al incrementar los efectos de otras sustancias carcin&oacute;genas por la generaci&oacute;n de especies reactivas de ox&iacute;geno y la inducci&oacute;n de genes relacionados con el c&aacute;ncer.<sup>127</sup> La exposici&oacute;n cr&oacute;nica a los PCB provoca aberraciones cromosomales.<sup>128,129</sup> Los metabolitos de los PCB inducen la generaci&oacute;n de radicales que producen da&ntilde;o oxidativo al ADN detectado en tumores cancer&iacute;genos de la mama.<sup>129 </sup>Algunos trabajos en c&aacute;ncer de mama reportan que la exposici&oacute;n a los PCB induce la actividad de la enzima P&#150;450 1A1 y el polimorfismo del gen CYP1A1, lo que provoca alteraciones en la s&iacute;ntesis de prote&iacute;nas.<sup>130&#150;132</sup> Un gran n&uacute;mero de estudios realizados en trabajadores expuestos a PCB reporta un incremento de diferentes tipos de c&aacute;ncer, como los de h&iacute;gado, ves&iacute;cula, tracto biliar, gastrointestinal, piel (especialmente melanomas malignos), linfomas Non&#150;Hodgking's, pulm&oacute;n, p&aacute;ncreas y cerebro.<sup>44</sup> En estudios hechos en h&iacute;gado de ratones expuestos al PCB&#150;153, se observaron mutaciones en los genes <i>CANTV, Ha&#150;ras </i>y <i>B&#150;raf, </i>los cuales son promotores de c&aacute;ncer y producen tumores en el h&iacute;gado del rat&oacute;n.<sup>133</sup></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>DISCUSI&Oacute;N Y CONCLUSI&Oacute;N</b></font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">Las evidencias de los estudios realizados con los PCB son concluyentes en que la exposici&oacute;n a estos t&oacute;xicos ambientales tiene efectos que alteran el funcionamiento de diferentes &oacute;rganos y sistemas, como el endocrino y el nervioso, tanto en humanos como en otros animales y en que es un factor de riesgo para un amplio n&uacute;mero de alteraciones neurodegenerativas. La principal preocupaci&oacute;n de las organizaciones de la salud sobre los efectos de estos contaminantes es la etapa perinatal, ya que durante este per&iacute;odo los procesos de desarrollo son m&aacute;s susceptibles a estos t&oacute;xicos ambientales. A pesar de que no se producen en gran escala, estos contaminantes permanecen en el ambiente por sus propiedades fisicoqu&iacute;micas, por derrames accidentales, por liberaci&oacute;n durante un transporte inapropiado y por incineraci&oacute;n de productos que los conten&iacute;an. Por lo anterior, actualmente la mayor&iacute;a de la poblaci&oacute;n de las grandes ciudades vive expuesta a concentraciones l&iacute;mite que exceden los niveles tolerables recomendados por la Organizaci&oacute;n Mundial de la Salud. En M&eacute;xico se tienen reportes de accidentes de contaminaci&oacute;n por PCB en poblaciones marginadas y hay estudios de especies marinas contaminadas de las costas del pa&iacute;s. Sin embargo, no existen reportes que documenten, como en otros pa&iacute;ses, el efecto de estos contaminantes en la poblaci&oacute;n mexicana y su concentraci&oacute;n en los alimentos. El problema se agrava porque existen pocos grupos interesados en estudiar los efectos de estos t&oacute;xicos. Nuestro grupo analiza actualmente los efectos de estos contaminantes en el nivel neuroendocrino y en algunos aspectos del aprendizaje y la memoria en ratas. Dada la relevancia de los efectos de los PCB en la salud, es importante que las instituciones de salud fomenten y apoyen la investigaci&oacute;n en esta &aacute;rea.</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>AGRADECIMIENTOS</b></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">A Feliciano Camacho por su asistencia t&eacute;cnica y a Ra&uacute;l Cardoso y Jos&eacute; Luis Calder&oacute;n por la ilustraci&oacute;n. Esta revisi&oacute;n fue financiada parcialmente por el proyecto UC&#150;MEXUS/CONACYT (ML&#150;O y MC) y por el Fondo de Apoyo a Proyectos de Investigaci&oacute;n INPRF (ML&#150;O).</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">&nbsp;</font></p>     <p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2"><b>REFERENCIAS</b></font></p>     <!-- ref --><p align="justify"><font face="verdana" size="2">1. Breivik K, Sweetman A, Pacyna JM, Jones KC. &lt;&lt;Towards a global historical emission inventory for selected PCB congeners a mass balance approach 1. Global production and consumption&gt;&gt;. 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