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Revista latinoamericana de herpetología

versión On-line ISSN 2594-2158

Rev. latinoam. herpetol. vol.6 no.1 Ciudad de México ene./mar. 2023  Epub 31-Ago-2023

https://doi.org/10.22201/fc.25942158e.2023.01.559 

Notas científicas

The Spetacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus, Crocodylia, Alligatoridae) as a Predator of the Amazon Sailfin-Catfish (Pterygoplichthys pardalis, Siluriformes, Loricaridae)

El caimán de anteojos (Caiman crocodilus, Crocodylia, Alligatoridae) como depredador del pez siluro del amazonas (Pterygoplichthys pardalis, Siluriformes, Loricaridae)

Franciele Cristina de Souza1  2  * 

Alessandro Ribeiro de Morais3 

Fabrício Hiroiuki Oda4  5 

1 Programa de Pós-graduação em Zoologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Manaus, Amazonas 69080-900, Brazil.

² Laboratório de Parasitologia de Peixes, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Manaus, Amazonas 69060-001, Brazil.

³ Laboratório de Ecologia, Evolução e Sistemática de Vertebrados, Instituto Federal Goiano - Campus Rio Verde, Rio Verde, Goiás 75901-970, Brazil.

4 Laboratório de Parasitologia Animal, Instituto de Biociências, Fundação Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul 79070-900, Brazil.

5 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação, Instituto de Biociências, Fundação Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul 79070-900, Brazil.


Abstract

We report an event of a Caiman crocodilus consuming the catfish Pterygoplichthys pardalis. A list of known prey items of C. crocodilus was also compiled from the literature, including known vertebrate and invertebrate items for this species. The predation event was observed at the margin of a lagoon in Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke, located in the municipality of Manaus, Amazonas state, Brazil, during a fieldwork study in 2020. The literature survey revealed 250 distinct prey items for this caiman, of which 150 are invertebrates (89 Insecta, 24 Crustacea, 14 Mollusca,10 Arachnida, 10 Myriapoda, 2 Annelida, and 1 Platyhelminthes) and 100 are vertebrates (53 fishes, 16 reptiles, 11 amphibians, 10 birds, and 10 mammals). Among fishes, only three Siluriformes have been taxonomically identified as C. crocodilus preys: Hoplosternum littorale, Clarias batrachus, and Ameiurus nebulosus. Therefore, the catfish P. pardalis represents a new prey specie for C. crocodilus. Our field observation and the presented literature review reinforce the view of C. crocodilus as a generalist predator, with fish as the most important vertebrate prey in the diet of this species.

Keywords: Amazon; Brazil; caiman; fishes; predator-prey interaction

Resumo

Reportamos um evento em que Caiman crocodilus consome o acari-bodó Pterygoplichthys pardalis. Uma lista de itens predados por C. crocodilus foi compilada da literatura, incluindo vertebrados e invertebrados consumidos por esta espécie. O evento de predação foi observado na margem de uma lagoa na Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke, localizada na cidade de Manaus, estado do Amazonas, Brasil, durante estudos de campo em 2020. A busca bibliográfica revelou 250 presas conhecidas para esta espécie de jacaré, sendo 150 invertebrados (89 Insecta, 24 Crustacea, 14 Mollusca, 10 Arachnida, 10 Myriapoda, 2 Annelida e 1 Platyhelminthes) e 100 vertebrados (53 peixes, 16 répteis, 11 anfíbios, 10 aves e 10 mamíferos). Entre os peixes, apenas três espécies de Siluriformes foram identificados como presas de C. crocodilus: Hoplosternum littorale, Clarias batrachus e Ameiurus nebulosus. Portanto, P. pardalis representa uma nova espécie de presa para C. crocodilus. Nossa observação de campo e revisão da literatura reforçam C. crocodilus como predador generalista, com peixes sendo os itens de maior importância entre os vertebrados, na dieta da espécie.

Palavras-chave: Amazônia; Brasil; jacaré; peixes; interação predador-presa

Alligatorids are top predators capable of exerting top-down pressure on populations of their prey species (Nifong & Silliman, 2013). The nominal species Caiman crocodilus comprises four sub-species (crocodilus, fuscus, chiapasius and apaporiensis), all represented by medium-sized alligatorids (up to nearly 2.7 meters) that are widely distributed in the Neotropics (Farias et al., 2013; Roberto et al., 2020). As other alligatorids, Caiman crocodilus may be active day or night depending on season and environmental temperature (Smith, 1979), which support their expected wide diet. This species has a generalist diet composed of invertebrates (arachnids, crustacean, insects and gastropods) and vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals) (Thorbjarnarson, 1993; Laverty & Dobson, 2013; Bontemps et al., 2016).

Here, we report for the first time the predation of the catfish Pterygoplichthys pardalis by the spectacled caiman Caiman crocodilus. We also provide a list of known prey of C. crocodilus compiled from available literature. Pterygoplichthys pardalis Castelnau, 1855 is a medium-sized (up to nearly 50 cm), benthic and detritivorous armored catfish known regionally as “acari-bodó” by the riverine native communities (Neves & Ruffino, 1998). It has economic importance because it is used by humans as a regular food item and explored as ornamental aquarium fish (Emiroğlu et al., 2016; Lima et al., 2019; Sousa et al., 2019). The species is widely distributed in the Amazon River basin, where it inhabits the bottom of rivers, lakes, and streams (Weber, 2003). Species of Pterygoplichthys are potential prey for a wide variety of predators, such as large fishes, chelonians, snakes, caimans, aquatic and wading birds, and otters (Willard, 1985; Nico, 2010). Although P. pardalis is a common species across the Amazon River basin, there is no detailed information on the predation of this catfish by C. crocodilus. A photographic record of an adult C. crocodilus holding a specimen of P. pardalis was first presented by Yves et al. (2021), but there is no information available to the predation event. The new record of predation events accompanied by information on food items consumed by C. crocodilus based on literature survey are important to improve our understanding about the feeding behavior of this caiman (Oda et al., 2022), and its role as a trophic agent in the food web (Miranda, 2017).

The record of predation on the catfish Pterygoplichthys pardalis was obtained from a fortuitous observation in nature. A bibliographic search was conducted using the literature search engine Google Scholar to obtain records of prey items consumed by C. crocodilus. The search terms used in this survey were: “Caiman crocodilus” “diet”, “feeding”, “predation”, “prey”. We also checked the complete natural history notes section of the scientific journals (respective range of dates displayed under parenthesis): Herpetological Review (1967-2021), Herpetological Bulletin (2008-2021), Herpetology Notes (2008-2022), Herpetozoa (1988-2022), and Mesoamerican Herpetology (2014-2018). Other references cited by the publications recovered by the primary bibliographic survey were obtained from three on-line databases: the repository of Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi (https://repositorio.museu-goeldi.br/), Semantic Scholar (https://www.semanticscholar.org/) and Biodiversity Heritage Library (https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/). Reports of predation attempts also were included in the review list. Prey items were just considered in our list when identified at least to the taxonomic level of order.

On 25 July 2022, around 09:20 hrs, we observed an adult Caiman crocodilus (~160 cm total body length) consuming an adult Pterygoplichthys pardalis (~20 cm total body length) (Fig. 1). This predation event was observed in a lagoon (3°00'27” S, 59°56'25” W) located in the Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke, municipality of Manaus, State of Amazonas, Brazil. Our observation began when the alligator had already captured and dominated the fish. Specifically, the alligator stood immobile at the edge of the lagoon, with only its body submerged and, after holding the fish firmly with its bite, swallowed it. The predation event lasted approximately 10 minutes until the prey was completely swallowed. After ingesting the fish, the caiman remained at the margin of the lagoon for about 2 minutes and then submerged. The identification of the fish was confirmed by the ichthyologist Jansen Alfredo Sampaio Zuanon, from Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (INPA).

Photos: Souza, F.C. (Fotos: Souza, F.C.)

Figure 1 Predation of Pterygoplichthys pardalis by Caiman crocodilus at the margin of a lagoon in Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke, municipality of Manaus, Amazonas State, northern Brazil. A - General view; B - Close-up view. Figura 1. Predação de Pterygoplichthys pardalis por Caiman crocodilus na margem de uma lagoa na Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke, município de Manaus, Estado do Amazonas, norte do Brasil. A - Visão geral; B - Visão aproximada. Fotos: Souza, F.C. 

Literature survey on prey items of C. crocodilus identified 27 studies, published between 1975 and 2022 (Table 1). Among these, only one study reported a predation attempt of a juvenile caiman on a frog. These studies were conducted in Brazil, Cuba, Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico, United States of America, and Venezuela. The diet of C. crocodilus is composed by 250 prey items, of which 150 are invertebrates (89 Insecta, 24 Crustacea, 14 Mollusca, 10 Arachnida, 10 Myriapoda, 2 Annelida, and 1 Platyhelminthes) and 100 are vertebrates (53 fishes, 16 reptiles, 11 amphibians, 10 birds, and 10 mammals) (Table 1).

Table 1 Reported preys of Caiman crocodilus complex. Countries: BRA: Brazil, CUB: Cuba, MEX: Mexico, PER: Peru, PRI: Puerto Rico, USA: United States of America, VEN: Venezuela. (*) Predation attempts. Tabela 1. Presas relatadas do complexo Caiman crocodilus. Países: BRA: Brasil, CUB: Cuba, MEX: México, PER: Peru, PRI: Porto Rico, EUA: Estados Unidos da América, VEN: Venezuela. (*) Tentativas de predação. 

Prey Locality (Country) Reference
Higher taxa Species
INVERTEBRATES
INSECTA
Blattaria
Blaberidae Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Coleoptera
Undetermined Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) Seijas & Ramos (1980)
Undetermined Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Undetermined Poconé, Mato Grosso State (BRA) Schaller & Crawshaw (1982)
Undetermined La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020)
Undetermined Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Undetermined Reserva Extrativista do Lago Cuniã, Rondonia State (BRA) Costa & Nunes (2019)
Undetermined Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Undetermined Mapurite lagoon system, El Manteco (VEN) Gorzula (1977, 1978)
Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
Undetermined Archipélago de San Andrés, Providencia y Santa Catalina (COL) Forero-Medina et al. (2006)
Bostrichidae Undetermined Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Carabidae Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Undetermined Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Curculionidae Undetermined La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020)
Dysticidae Megadytes sp. La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020)
Undetermined Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) Seijas & Ramos (1980)
Undetermined Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Undetermined Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Gyrindae Undetermined Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) Seijas & Ramos (1980)
Undetermined Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Haliplidae Undetermined Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) Seijas & Ramos (1980)
Hydrophilidae Undetermined Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Undetermined Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Undetermined Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Undetermined Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) Seijas & Ramos (1980)
Hydrophilus sp. La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020)
Melolonthidae Phyllophaga sp. Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Noteridae Undetermined La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020)
Scarabaeidae Undetermined Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Undetermined Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Undetermined Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) Seijas & Ramos (1980)
Diptera
Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Undetermined La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020)
Undetermined Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
Nematocera Undetermined Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Ephemeroptera
Undetermined Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
Hemiptera
Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Undetermined Mapurite lagoon system, El Manteco (VEN) Gorzula (1977, 1978)
Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
Belostomatidae Undetermined Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Undetermined Reserva Extrativista do Lago Cuniã, Rondonia State (BRA) Costa & Nunes (2019)
Undetermined Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) Seijas & Ramos (1980)
Undetermined Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Lethocerus sp. La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020)
Veliidae Undetermined Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Homoptera
Undetermined Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Hymenoptera
Undetermined Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Undetermined Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
Formicidae Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Undetermined La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020)
Isoptera Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
Lepidoptera Undetermined Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Mantodea
Mantidae Undetermined Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Odonata Undetermined Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Undetermined Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
Caenogrionidae Undetermined Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Orthoptera
Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Undetermined Mapurite lagoon system, El Manteco (VEN) Gorzula (1977, 1978)
Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
Undetermined Archipélago de San Andrés, Providencia y Santa Catalina (COL) Forero-Medina et al (2006)
Acrididea Undetermined La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020)
Gryllidae Undetermined Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
CRUSTACEA Undetermined Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Undetermined La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020)
Undetermined Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Undetermined Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, Loreto region (PER) Moldowan et al. (2016)
Undetermined Reserve Pacaya Samiria National (PER) Laverty & Dobson, 2013
Brachyura Undetermined Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Undetermined La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020)
Undetermined Poconé, Mato grosso (BRA) Schaller & Crawshaw (1982)
Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
Decapoda Undetermined Reserva Extrativista do Lago Cuniã, Rondonia State (BRA) Costa & Nunes (2019)
Undetermined Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Undetermined La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020)
Undetermined Mapurite lagoon system, El Manteco (VEN) Gorzula (1977, 1978)
Undetermined Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) Seijas & Ramos (1980)
Undetermined Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
Undetermined Archipélago de San Andrés, Providencia y Santa Catalina (COL) Forero-Medina et al. (2006)
Undetermined Parque Nacional do Araguaia, Ilha do Bananal (TO) Gomes & Malvasio (2013)
Grapsidae Undetermined La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020)
Malacostraca Undetermined Manaus, Amazonas State (BRA) Martins (2012)
Palaemonidae Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Macrobrachium spp. Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) Seijas & Ramos (1980)
Macrobrachium sp. Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Pseudothelphusidae Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
Trichodactylidae Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Dilocarcinus sp. Poconé, Mato Grosso (BRA) Schaller & Crawshaw (1982)
Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
Valdivia serrata Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
MOLLUSCA
Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
Gastropoda Undetermined Reserve Pacaya Samiria National (PER) Laverty & Dobson, 2013
Ampullariidae Pomacea doliodes Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Pomacea Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Marisa cornuarietis Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Bulimulidae Bulimulus guadalupensis Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Neritidae Neritina sp. Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Pilidae Undetermined Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Thiaridae Melanoides tuberculata Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Tarebia granifera Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
ARACHNIDA
Undetermined Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Undetermined La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020)
Undetermined Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, Loreto region (PER) Moldowan et al. (2016)
Undetermined Reserve Pacaya Samiria National (PER) Laverty & Dobson (2013)
Undetermined Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Acari Undetermined La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020)
Undetermined La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020)
Hydrachnidiae Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Araneae Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
Lycosidae Undetermined La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020)
Pisauridae Undetermined Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Scorpiones Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
MYRIAPODA
Undetermined Archipélago de San Andrés, Providencia y Santa Catalina (COL) Forero-Medina et al. (2006)
Undetermined Reserve Pacaya Samiria National (PER) Laverty & Dobson (2013)
Chilopoda Undetermined Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
Diplopoda Undetermined Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Undetermined Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
Scolopendromorpha Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
ANNELIDA
Hirudinea Undetermined Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Oligochaeta Undetermined Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Plathyhelminthes
Turbellaria Undetermined Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
VERTEBRATES
FISH
Lepisosteiformes
Lepisosteidae Atractosteus tristoechus Isla de la Juventud (CUB) Escobar (1995)
Elopiformes
Magalopidae Megalops atlanticus Homestead Air Reserve Base, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) Ellis (1980)
Osteoglossiformes
Undetermined Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Characiformes
Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Undetermined Reserva Extrativista do Lago Cuniã, Rondonia State (BRA) )Costa & Nunes (2019)
Anostomatidae Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Aphyocharax sp. Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) Seijas & Ramos (1980)
Undetermined Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) Seijas & Ramos (1980)
Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Erythrinidae Hoplias malabaricus Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) Seijas & Ramos (1980)
Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Hoplias sp. Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Lebiasinidae Pyrrhulina sp. Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) Seijas & Ramos (1980)
Serrasalmidae Pygocentrus cariba Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Serrasalmus sp. Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) Seijas & Ramos (1980)
Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Siluriformes
Undetermined Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Undetermined Reserva Extrativista do Lago Cuniã, Rondonia State (BRA) Costa & Nunes (2019)
Auchenipteridae Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Callichthyidae Hoplosternum littorale Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) Seijas & Ramos (1980)
Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Reserva Extrativista do Lago Cuniã, Rondonia State (BRA) Costa & Nunes (2019)
Hoplosternum sp. Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Clariidae Clarias batrachus Everglades National Park, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) Krysko et al. (2010)
Ictaluridae Ameiurus nebulosus Homestead Air Reserve Base, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) Ellis (1980)
Ictaluridae Undetermined Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) Seijas & Ramos (1980)
Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Pterygoplichthys pardalis Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke, Manaus, Amazonas State (BRA) Present study
Pimelodidae Pseudoplatystoma sp. Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Undetermined Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Undetermined Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Gymnotiformes
Sternopygidae Undetermined Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) Seijas & Ramos (1980)
Cyprinodontifomes
Poeciliidae Gambusia affinis Homestead Air Reserve Base, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) Ellis (1980)
Poecilia latipinna Homestead Air Reserve Base, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) Ellis (1980)
Beloniformes
Undetermined Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Belonidae Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Synbranchiformes
Synbranchidae Synbranchus marmoratus Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Synbranchus sp. Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Undetermined Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Undetermined Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Perciformes
Centrarchidae Lepomis macrochirus Homestead Air Reserve Base, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) Ellis (1980)
Centropomidae Centropomus undecimalis Homestead Air Reserve Base, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) Ellis (1980)
Cichlidae Aequidens sp. Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) Seijas & Ramos (1980)
Cichlasoma sp. Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Oreochromis sp. Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Pelmatolapia mariae Homestead Air Reserve Base, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) Ellis (1980)
Undetermined Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) Seijas & Ramos (1980)
Undetermined Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Undetermined Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Eleotridae Eleotris sp. Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
AMPHIBIANS
Anura
Bufonidae Rhinella marina Oriximiná, Pará State (BRA) Batista et al. (2011)
Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke, Manaus, Amazonas State (BRA) Oda et al. (2022)
Rhinella granulos Mapurite lagoon system, El Manteco (VEN) Gorzula (1977, 1978)
Hylidae Pseudis paradoxa Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Undetermined Hato La Guanota, near San Fernando de Apure (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Leptodactylidae Leptodactylus macrosternum Mapurite lagoon system, El Manteco (VEN) Gorzula (1977, 1978)
Leptodactylus sp. Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Pleurodema brachyops Mapurite lagoon system, El Manteco (VEN) Gorzula (1977, 1978)
Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Microhylidae Elachistocleis sp. Mapurite lagoon system, El Manteco (VEN) Gorzula (1977, 1978)
Elachistocleis carvalhoi* Tauari River, Marabá, Pará State (BRA) Figueiredo et al. (2021)
Ranidae Lithobates catesbeianus Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Lithobates sphaenocephalus Homestead Air Reserve Base, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) Ellis (1980)
REPTILES
Sauria
Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
Iguanidae Iguana iguana Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Hato Masagural, Guático State (VEN) Rivas et al. (1998)
Teiidae Crocodilurus or Ameiva Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Squamata
Amphisbaenia
Amphisbaenidae Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)
Ophidia
Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
Boidae Eunectes murinus Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Rivas et al. (1999)
Eunectes notaeus Unknown Medem (1983)
Colubridae Chironius carinatus Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Dipsadidae Helicops angulatus Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, Loreto region (PER) Moldowan et al. (2016)
Hydrops martii Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Hydrops triangularis Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Crocodylia
Alligatoridae Caiman crocodilus Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Undetermined Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Crocodylidae Crocodilus rhombifer Lanier Swamp, Isla de la Juventude (CUB) Varona (1980)
Testudines
Emydidae Trachemys scripta elegans Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Trachemys
stejnegeri Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
stejnegeri
BIRDS
Anseriformes
Anatidae Dendrocygna sp. Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Charadriiformes
Jacanidae Jacana sp. La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020)
Ciconiiformes
Undetermined Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Columbiformes
Columbidae Undetermined Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999)
Galliformes
Phasianidae Gallus gallus domesticus Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Gruiformes
Rallidae Porphyrio martinicus Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Passeriformes
Icteridae Undetermined Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Rhynchocyclidae Todirostrum sp. Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Undetermined Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Pelecaniformes
Phalacrocoridae Phalacrocorax auritus Homestead Air Reserve Base, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) Ellis (1980)
MAMMALS
Undetermined Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) Magnusson et al. (1987)
Cingulata
Dasypodidae Dasypus novemcinctus Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Dasypus sp. Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Didelphimorphia
Didelphidae Didelphis marsupialis Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Rodentia
Undetermined Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) Thorbjarnarson (1993)
Heteromyidae Undetermined Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) Staton & Dixon (1975)
Muridae Mus musculus Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) Bontemps et al. (2016)
Rattus novergicus Manaus, Amazonas State (BRA) Martins (2012)
Rattus rattus Manaus, Amazonas State (BRA) Martins (2012)
Primates
Atelidae/Cebidae Undetermined Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016)

Records of fish as prey items of C. crocodilus include species within 10 taxonomic orders (Table 1): Lepisosteiformes, Elopiformes, Osteoglossiformes, Characiformes, Siluriformes, Gymnotiformes, Cyprinodontiformes, Beloniformes, Synbranchiformes, and Perciformes (Staton & Dixon, 1975; Ellis, 1980; Seijas & Ramos, 1980; Thorbjarnarson, 1993; Escobar, 1995; Krysko et al., 2010; Barão-Nóbrega et al., 2016; Bontemps et al., 2016; Costa & Nunes 2019). Predation records for Siluriformes include Hoplosternum littorale (Seijas & Ramos, 1980), Hoplosternum sp. (Staton & Dixon, 1975), Clarias batrachus (Krysko et al., 2010), Ameiurus nebulosus (Ellis, 1980), and Pseudoplatystoma sp. (Staton & Dixon, 1975). Therefore, Pterygoplichthys pardalis represents a new prey species for C. crocodilus.

Previous studies on the diet of Caiman crocodilus (Thorbjarnarson, 1993; Laverty & Dobson, 2013; Bontemps et al., 2016), demonstrate that this species is a generalist predator, feeding on a wide variety of items. Our field observation and literature review reinforce this aspect of their diet. However, among the vertebrate prey items, the high number of fish reports suggests that this food item is likely of great importance in its diet (e.g., Magnusson et al., 1987; Thorbjarnarson, 1993; Da Silveira & Magnusson, 1999; Bontemps et al., 2016). This is probably related to the high abundance and availability of this prey in the studied habitats.

Acknowledgements

We thank the staff team of Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke and Museu da Amazônia for their valuable help during our field visits to the reserve. Jansen Alfredo Sampaio Zuanon and Ronis da Silveira for valuable help with the identification of prey and predators. Werther Pereira Ramalho for the English language revision; and two anonymous reviewers for the valuable suggestions on the first version of this manuscript. Franciele Cristina de Souza received a doctoral fellowship from Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Amazonas - FAPEAM (resolução n. 006/2020 - POSGRAD UFAM - Edição 2020). Alessandro R. de Morais is a research productivity fellow from Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq (310658/2020-9). Fabrício H. Oda received a postdoctoral fellowship from Fundação de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento do Ensino, Ciência e Tecnologia do Estado de Mato Grosso do Sul - FUNDECT (Edital n. 32/2021; 71/011.029/2022).

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Received: October 05, 2022; Accepted: January 18, 2023; Published: March 01, 2023

* Correspondence: francielexingu@gmail.com.

Editor. Thais Helena Condez, Brasil.

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