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Alligatorids are top predators capable of exerting top-down pressure on populations of their prey species (Nifong & Silliman, 2013). The nominal species Caiman crocodilus comprises four sub-species (crocodilus, fuscus, chiapasius and apaporiensis), all represented by medium-sized alligatorids (up to nearly 2.7 meters) that are widely distributed in the Neotropics (Farias et al., 2013; Roberto et al., 2020). As other alligatorids, Caiman crocodilus may be active day or night depending on season and environmental temperature (Smith, 1979), which support their expected wide diet. This species has a generalist diet composed of invertebrates (arachnids, crustacean, insects and gastropods) and vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals) (Thorbjarnarson, 1993; Laverty & Dobson, 2013; Bontemps et al., 2016).
Here, we report for the first time the predation of the catfish Pterygoplichthys pardalis by the spectacled caiman Caiman crocodilus. We also provide a list of known prey of C. crocodilus compiled from available literature. Pterygoplichthys pardalis Castelnau, 1855 is a medium-sized (up to nearly 50 cm), benthic and detritivorous armored catfish known regionally as “acari-bodó” by the riverine native communities (Neves & Ruffino, 1998). It has economic importance because it is used by humans as a regular food item and explored as ornamental aquarium fish (Emiroğlu et al., 2016; Lima et al., 2019; Sousa et al., 2019). The species is widely distributed in the Amazon River basin, where it inhabits the bottom of rivers, lakes, and streams (Weber, 2003). Species of Pterygoplichthys are potential prey for a wide variety of predators, such as large fishes, chelonians, snakes, caimans, aquatic and wading birds, and otters (Willard, 1985; Nico, 2010). Although P. pardalis is a common species across the Amazon River basin, there is no detailed information on the predation of this catfish by C. crocodilus. A photographic record of an adult C. crocodilus holding a specimen of P. pardalis was first presented by Yves et al. (2021), but there is no information available to the predation event. The new record of predation events accompanied by information on food items consumed by C. crocodilus based on literature survey are important to improve our understanding about the feeding behavior of this caiman (Oda et al., 2022), and its role as a trophic agent in the food web (Miranda, 2017).
The record of predation on the catfish Pterygoplichthys pardalis was obtained from a fortuitous observation in nature. A bibliographic search was conducted using the literature search engine Google Scholar to obtain records of prey items consumed by C. crocodilus. The search terms used in this survey were: “Caiman crocodilus” “diet”, “feeding”, “predation”, “prey”. We also checked the complete natural history notes section of the scientific journals (respective range of dates displayed under parenthesis): Herpetological Review (1967-2021), Herpetological Bulletin (2008-2021), Herpetology Notes (2008-2022), Herpetozoa (1988-2022), and Mesoamerican Herpetology (2014-2018). Other references cited by the publications recovered by the primary bibliographic survey were obtained from three on-line databases: the repository of Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi (https://repositorio.museu-goeldi.br/), Semantic Scholar (https://www.semanticscholar.org/) and Biodiversity Heritage Library (https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/). Reports of predation attempts also were included in the review list. Prey items were just considered in our list when identified at least to the taxonomic level of order.
On 25 July 2022, around 09:20 hrs, we observed an adult Caiman crocodilus (~160 cm total body length) consuming an adult Pterygoplichthys pardalis (~20 cm total body length) (Fig. 1). This predation event was observed in a lagoon (3°00'27” S, 59°56'25” W) located in the Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke, municipality of Manaus, State of Amazonas, Brazil. Our observation began when the alligator had already captured and dominated the fish. Specifically, the alligator stood immobile at the edge of the lagoon, with only its body submerged and, after holding the fish firmly with its bite, swallowed it. The predation event lasted approximately 10 minutes until the prey was completely swallowed. After ingesting the fish, the caiman remained at the margin of the lagoon for about 2 minutes and then submerged. The identification of the fish was confirmed by the ichthyologist Jansen Alfredo Sampaio Zuanon, from Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (INPA).
Photos: Souza, F.C. (Fotos: Souza, F.C.)
Figure 1 Predation of Pterygoplichthys pardalis by Caiman crocodilus at the margin of a lagoon in Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke, municipality of Manaus, Amazonas State, northern Brazil. A - General view; B - Close-up view. Figura 1. Predação de Pterygoplichthys pardalis por Caiman crocodilus na margem de uma lagoa na Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke, município de Manaus, Estado do Amazonas, norte do Brasil. A - Visão geral; B - Visão aproximada. Fotos: Souza, F.C.
Literature survey on prey items of C. crocodilus identified 27 studies, published between 1975 and 2022 (Table 1). Among these, only one study reported a predation attempt of a juvenile caiman on a frog. These studies were conducted in Brazil, Cuba, Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico, United States of America, and Venezuela. The diet of C. crocodilus is composed by 250 prey items, of which 150 are invertebrates (89 Insecta, 24 Crustacea, 14 Mollusca, 10 Arachnida, 10 Myriapoda, 2 Annelida, and 1 Platyhelminthes) and 100 are vertebrates (53 fishes, 16 reptiles, 11 amphibians, 10 birds, and 10 mammals) (Table 1).
Table 1 Reported preys of Caiman crocodilus complex. Countries: BRA: Brazil, CUB: Cuba, MEX: Mexico, PER: Peru, PRI: Puerto Rico, USA: United States of America, VEN: Venezuela. (*) Predation attempts. Tabela 1. Presas relatadas do complexo Caiman crocodilus. Países: BRA: Brasil, CUB: Cuba, MEX: México, PER: Peru, PRI: Porto Rico, EUA: Estados Unidos da América, VEN: Venezuela. (*) Tentativas de predação.
| Prey | Locality (Country) | Reference | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Higher taxa | Species | ||
| INVERTEBRATES | |||
| INSECTA | |||
| Blattaria | |||
| Blaberidae | Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) |
| Coleoptera | |||
| Undetermined | Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) | Seijas & Ramos (1980) | |
| Undetermined | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) | |
| Undetermined | Poconé, Mato Grosso State (BRA) | Schaller & Crawshaw (1982) | |
| Undetermined | La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) | Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020) | |
| Undetermined | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) | |
| Undetermined | Reserva Extrativista do Lago Cuniã, Rondonia State (BRA) | Costa & Nunes (2019) | |
| Undetermined | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) | |
| Undetermined | Mapurite lagoon system, El Manteco (VEN) | Gorzula (1977, 1978) | |
| Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) | |
| Undetermined | Archipélago de San Andrés, Providencia y Santa Catalina (COL) | Forero-Medina et al. (2006) | |
| Bostrichidae | Undetermined | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) |
| Carabidae | Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) |
| Undetermined | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) | |
| Curculionidae | Undetermined | La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) | Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020) |
| Dysticidae | Megadytes sp. | La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) | Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020) |
| Undetermined | Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) | Seijas & Ramos (1980) | |
| Undetermined | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) | |
| Undetermined | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) | |
| Gyrindae | Undetermined | Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) | Seijas & Ramos (1980) |
| Undetermined | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) | |
| Haliplidae | Undetermined | Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) | Seijas & Ramos (1980) |
| Hydrophilidae | Undetermined | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) |
| Undetermined | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) | |
| Undetermined | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) | |
| Undetermined | Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) | Seijas & Ramos (1980) | |
| Hydrophilus sp. | La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) | Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020) | |
| Melolonthidae | Phyllophaga sp. | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) |
| Noteridae | Undetermined | La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) | Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020) |
| Scarabaeidae | Undetermined | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) |
| Undetermined | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) | |
| Undetermined | Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) | Seijas & Ramos (1980) | |
| Diptera | |||
| Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) | |
| Undetermined | La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) | Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020) | |
| Undetermined | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) | |
| Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) | |
| Nematocera | Undetermined | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) |
| Ephemeroptera | |||
| Undetermined | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) | |
| Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) | |
| Hemiptera | |||
| Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) | |
| Undetermined | Mapurite lagoon system, El Manteco (VEN) | Gorzula (1977, 1978) | |
| Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) | |
| Belostomatidae | Undetermined | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) |
| Undetermined | Reserva Extrativista do Lago Cuniã, Rondonia State (BRA) | Costa & Nunes (2019) | |
| Undetermined | Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) | Seijas & Ramos (1980) | |
| Undetermined | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) | |
| Lethocerus sp. | La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) | Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020) | |
| Veliidae | Undetermined | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) |
| Homoptera | |||
| Undetermined | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) | |
| Hymenoptera | |||
| Undetermined | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) | |
| Undetermined | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) | |
| Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) | |
| Formicidae | Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) |
| Undetermined | La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) | Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020) | |
| Isoptera | Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) |
| Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) | |
| Lepidoptera | Undetermined | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) |
| Mantodea | |||
| Mantidae | Undetermined | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) |
| Odonata | Undetermined | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) |
| Undetermined | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) | |
| Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) | |
| Caenogrionidae | Undetermined | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) |
| Orthoptera | |||
| Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) | |
| Undetermined | Mapurite lagoon system, El Manteco (VEN) | Gorzula (1977, 1978) | |
| Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) | |
| Undetermined | Archipélago de San Andrés, Providencia y Santa Catalina (COL) | Forero-Medina et al (2006) | |
| Acrididea | Undetermined | La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) | Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020) |
| Gryllidae | Undetermined | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) |
| CRUSTACEA | Undetermined | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) |
| Undetermined | La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) | Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020) | |
| Undetermined | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) | |
| Undetermined | Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, Loreto region (PER) | Moldowan et al. (2016) | |
| Undetermined | Reserve Pacaya Samiria National (PER) | Laverty & Dobson, 2013 | |
| Brachyura | Undetermined | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) |
| Undetermined | La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) | Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020) | |
| Undetermined | Poconé, Mato grosso (BRA) | Schaller & Crawshaw (1982) | |
| Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) | |
| Decapoda | Undetermined | Reserva Extrativista do Lago Cuniã, Rondonia State (BRA) | Costa & Nunes (2019) |
| Undetermined | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) | |
| Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) | |
| Undetermined | La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) | Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020) | |
| Undetermined | Mapurite lagoon system, El Manteco (VEN) | Gorzula (1977, 1978) | |
| Undetermined | Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) | Seijas & Ramos (1980) | |
| Undetermined | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) | |
| Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) | |
| Undetermined | Archipélago de San Andrés, Providencia y Santa Catalina (COL) | Forero-Medina et al. (2006) | |
| Undetermined | Parque Nacional do Araguaia, Ilha do Bananal (TO) | Gomes & Malvasio (2013) | |
| Grapsidae | Undetermined | La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) | Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020) |
| Malacostraca | Undetermined | Manaus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Martins (2012) |
| Palaemonidae | Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) |
| Macrobrachium spp. | Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) | Seijas & Ramos (1980) | |
| Macrobrachium sp. | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) | |
| Pseudothelphusidae | Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) |
| Trichodactylidae | Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) |
| Dilocarcinus sp. | Poconé, Mato Grosso (BRA) | Schaller & Crawshaw (1982) | |
| Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) | |
| Valdivia serrata | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) | |
| MOLLUSCA | |||
| Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) | |
| Gastropoda | Undetermined | Reserve Pacaya Samiria National (PER) | Laverty & Dobson, 2013 |
| Ampullariidae | Pomacea doliodes | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) |
| Pomacea | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) | |
| Marisa cornuarietis | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) | |
| Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) | |
| Bulimulidae | Bulimulus guadalupensis | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) |
| Neritidae | Neritina sp. | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) |
| Pilidae | Undetermined | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) |
| Thiaridae | Melanoides tuberculata | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) |
| Tarebia granifera | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) | |
| ARACHNIDA | |||
| Undetermined | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) | |
| Undetermined | La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) | Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020) | |
| Undetermined | Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, Loreto region (PER) | Moldowan et al. (2016) | |
| Undetermined | Reserve Pacaya Samiria National (PER) | Laverty & Dobson (2013) | |
| Undetermined | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) | |
| Acari | Undetermined | La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) | Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020) |
| Undetermined | La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) | Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020) | |
| Hydrachnidiae | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) | |
| Araneae | Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) |
| Lycosidae | Undetermined | La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) | Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020) |
| Pisauridae | Undetermined | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) |
| Scorpiones | Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) |
| MYRIAPODA | |||
| Undetermined | Archipélago de San Andrés, Providencia y Santa Catalina (COL) | Forero-Medina et al. (2006) | |
| Undetermined | Reserve Pacaya Samiria National (PER) | Laverty & Dobson (2013) | |
| Chilopoda | Undetermined | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) |
| Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) | |
| Diplopoda | Undetermined | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) |
| Undetermined | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) | |
| Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) | |
| Scolopendromorpha | Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) |
| ANNELIDA | |||
| Hirudinea | Undetermined | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) |
| Oligochaeta | Undetermined | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) |
| Plathyhelminthes | |||
| Turbellaria | Undetermined | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) |
| VERTEBRATES | |||
| FISH | |||
| Lepisosteiformes | |||
| Lepisosteidae | Atractosteus tristoechus | Isla de la Juventud (CUB) | Escobar (1995) |
| Elopiformes | |||
| Magalopidae | Megalops atlanticus | Homestead Air Reserve Base, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) | Ellis (1980) |
| Osteoglossiformes | |||
| Undetermined | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) | |
| Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) | |
| Characiformes | |||
| Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) | |
| Undetermined | Reserva Extrativista do Lago Cuniã, Rondonia State (BRA) | )Costa & Nunes (2019) | |
| Anostomatidae | Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) |
| Aphyocharax sp. | Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) | Seijas & Ramos (1980) | |
| Undetermined | Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) | Seijas & Ramos (1980) | |
| Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) | |
| Erythrinidae | Hoplias malabaricus | Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) | Seijas & Ramos (1980) |
| Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) | ||
| Hoplias sp. | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) | |
| Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) | |
| Lebiasinidae | Pyrrhulina sp. | Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) | Seijas & Ramos (1980) |
| Serrasalmidae | Pygocentrus cariba | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) |
| Serrasalmus sp. | Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) | Seijas & Ramos (1980) | |
| Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) | |
| Siluriformes | |||
| Undetermined | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) | |
| Undetermined | Reserva Extrativista do Lago Cuniã, Rondonia State (BRA) | Costa & Nunes (2019) | |
| Auchenipteridae | Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) |
| Callichthyidae | Hoplosternum littorale | Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) | Seijas & Ramos (1980) |
| Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) | ||
| Reserva Extrativista do Lago Cuniã, Rondonia State (BRA) | Costa & Nunes (2019) | ||
| Hoplosternum sp. | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) | |
| Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) | |
| Clariidae | Clarias batrachus | Everglades National Park, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) | Krysko et al. (2010) |
| Ictaluridae | Ameiurus nebulosus | Homestead Air Reserve Base, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) | Ellis (1980) |
| Ictaluridae | Undetermined | Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) | Seijas & Ramos (1980) |
| Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) | |
| Pterygoplichthys pardalis | Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke, Manaus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Present study | |
| Pimelodidae | Pseudoplatystoma sp. | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) |
| Undetermined | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) | |
| Undetermined | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) | |
| Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) | |
| Gymnotiformes | |||
| Sternopygidae | Undetermined | Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) | Seijas & Ramos (1980) |
| Cyprinodontifomes | |||
| Poeciliidae | Gambusia affinis | Homestead Air Reserve Base, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) | Ellis (1980) |
| Poecilia latipinna | Homestead Air Reserve Base, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) | Ellis (1980) | |
| Beloniformes | |||
| Undetermined | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) | |
| Belonidae | Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) |
| Synbranchiformes | |||
| Synbranchidae | Synbranchus marmoratus | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) |
| Synbranchus sp. | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) | |
| Undetermined | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) | |
| Undetermined | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) | |
| Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) | |
| Perciformes | |||
| Centrarchidae | Lepomis macrochirus | Homestead Air Reserve Base, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) | Ellis (1980) |
| Centropomidae | Centropomus undecimalis | Homestead Air Reserve Base, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) | Ellis (1980) |
| Cichlidae | Aequidens sp. | Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) | Seijas & Ramos (1980) |
| Cichlasoma sp. | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) | |
| Oreochromis sp. | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) | |
| Pelmatolapia mariae | Homestead Air Reserve Base, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) | Ellis (1980) | |
| Undetermined | Modulo Experimental de Mantecal (VEN) | Seijas & Ramos (1980) | |
| Undetermined | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) | |
| Undetermined | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) | |
| Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) | |
| Eleotridae | Eleotris sp. | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) |
| AMPHIBIANS | |||
| Anura | |||
| Bufonidae | Rhinella marina | Oriximiná, Pará State (BRA) | Batista et al. (2011) |
| Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke, Manaus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Oda et al. (2022) | ||
| Rhinella granulos | Mapurite lagoon system, El Manteco (VEN) | Gorzula (1977, 1978) | |
| Hylidae | Pseudis paradoxa | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) |
| Undetermined | Hato La Guanota, near San Fernando de Apure (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) | |
| Leptodactylidae | Leptodactylus macrosternum | Mapurite lagoon system, El Manteco (VEN) | Gorzula (1977, 1978) |
| Leptodactylus sp. | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) | |
| Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) | ||
| Pleurodema brachyops | Mapurite lagoon system, El Manteco (VEN) | Gorzula (1977, 1978) | |
| Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) | ||
| Microhylidae | Elachistocleis sp. | Mapurite lagoon system, El Manteco (VEN) | Gorzula (1977, 1978) |
| Elachistocleis carvalhoi* | Tauari River, Marabá, Pará State (BRA) | Figueiredo et al. (2021) | |
| Ranidae | Lithobates catesbeianus | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) |
| Lithobates sphaenocephalus | Homestead Air Reserve Base, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) | Ellis (1980) | |
| REPTILES | |||
| Sauria | |||
| Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) | |
| Iguanidae | Iguana iguana | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) |
| Hato Masagural, Guático State (VEN) | Rivas et al. (1998) | ||
| Teiidae | Crocodilurus or Ameiva | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) |
| Squamata | |||
| Amphisbaenia | |||
| Amphisbaenidae | Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) |
| Ophidia | |||
| Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) | |
| Boidae | Eunectes murinus | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Rivas et al. (1999) |
| Eunectes notaeus | Unknown | Medem (1983) | |
| Colubridae | Chironius carinatus | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) |
| Dipsadidae | Helicops angulatus | Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, Loreto region (PER) | Moldowan et al. (2016) |
| Hydrops martii | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) | |
| Hydrops triangularis | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) | |
| Crocodylia | |||
| Alligatoridae | Caiman crocodilus | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) |
| Undetermined | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) | |
| Crocodylidae | Crocodilus rhombifer | Lanier Swamp, Isla de la Juventude (CUB) | Varona (1980) |
| Testudines | |||
| Emydidae | Trachemys scripta elegans | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) |
| Trachemys | |||
| stejnegeri | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) | |
| stejnegeri | |||
| BIRDS | |||
| Anseriformes | |||
| Anatidae | Dendrocygna sp. | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) |
| Charadriiformes | |||
| Jacanidae | Jacana sp. | La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve, Acapetahua, Chiapas (MEX) | Soria-Ortiz et al. (2020) |
| Ciconiiformes | |||
| Undetermined | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) | |
| Columbiformes | |||
| Columbidae | Undetermined | Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas State (BRA) | Da Silveira & Magnusson (1999) |
| Galliformes | |||
| Phasianidae | Gallus gallus domesticus | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) |
| Gruiformes | |||
| Rallidae | Porphyrio martinicus | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) |
| Passeriformes | |||
| Icteridae | Undetermined | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) |
| Rhynchocyclidae | Todirostrum sp. | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) |
| Undetermined | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) | |
| Pelecaniformes | |||
| Phalacrocoridae | Phalacrocorax auritus | Homestead Air Reserve Base, Miami-Dade Co., Florida State (USA) | Ellis (1980) |
| MAMMALS | |||
| Undetermined | Localities in the Brazilian Amazon (BRA) | Magnusson et al. (1987) | |
| Cingulata | |||
| Dasypodidae | Dasypus novemcinctus | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) |
| Dasypus sp. | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) | |
| Didelphimorphia | |||
| Didelphidae | Didelphis marsupialis | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) |
| Rodentia | |||
| Undetermined | Calabozo, Guárico State (VEN) | Thorbjarnarson (1993) | |
| Heteromyidae | Undetermined | Venezuelan Llanos (VEN) | Staton & Dixon (1975) |
| Muridae | Mus musculus | Tortuguero lagoon, between Vega Baja and Manatí (PRI) | Bontemps et al. (2016) |
| Rattus novergicus | Manaus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Martins (2012) | |
| Rattus rattus | Manaus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Martins (2012) | |
| Primates | |||
| Atelidae/Cebidae | Undetermined | Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Piagaçu-Purus, Amazonas State (BRA) | Barão-Nóbrega et al. (2016) |
Records of fish as prey items of C. crocodilus include species within 10 taxonomic orders (Table 1): Lepisosteiformes, Elopiformes, Osteoglossiformes, Characiformes, Siluriformes, Gymnotiformes, Cyprinodontiformes, Beloniformes, Synbranchiformes, and Perciformes (Staton & Dixon, 1975; Ellis, 1980; Seijas & Ramos, 1980; Thorbjarnarson, 1993; Escobar, 1995; Krysko et al., 2010; Barão-Nóbrega et al., 2016; Bontemps et al., 2016; Costa & Nunes 2019). Predation records for Siluriformes include Hoplosternum littorale (Seijas & Ramos, 1980), Hoplosternum sp. (Staton & Dixon, 1975), Clarias batrachus (Krysko et al., 2010), Ameiurus nebulosus (Ellis, 1980), and Pseudoplatystoma sp. (Staton & Dixon, 1975). Therefore, Pterygoplichthys pardalis represents a new prey species for C. crocodilus.
Previous studies on the diet of Caiman crocodilus (Thorbjarnarson, 1993; Laverty & Dobson, 2013; Bontemps et al., 2016), demonstrate that this species is a generalist predator, feeding on a wide variety of items. Our field observation and literature review reinforce this aspect of their diet. However, among the vertebrate prey items, the high number of fish reports suggests that this food item is likely of great importance in its diet (e.g., Magnusson et al., 1987; Thorbjarnarson, 1993; Da Silveira & Magnusson, 1999; Bontemps et al., 2016). This is probably related to the high abundance and availability of this prey in the studied habitats.
