Alameda Central: the first urban park in Mexico and the American Continent

On January 13^th, 1592, in the nascent capital of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, the eighth viceroy Luis de Velasco y Castilla requested the City Council of Mexico City to build a place (of the type known as alamedas or paseos) for the recreation and leisure of the inhabitants of the capital of New Spain. This request was addressed on the following day and was recorded in the minutes of the town Council as follows: “On this day, the city discussed the communication by the Viceroy in the sense that an avenue be built in front of the San Hipólito market where Morcillo's house and tannery is located, so that a fountain and trees could be placed there for the ornament of this city as a venue for the outings and recreation of the neighbors” (^{Bejarano, 1889}; ^{Marroquí, 1900}). The expenses for its construction would come from the City's own budget, and a gentleman alderman would be appointed as commissioner of such work without receiving a salary. This position was assigned to Diego de Velasco, the Bailiff Mayor, and his assistant, Diego Angulo, who received a salary of 300 pesos of common gold per year (^{Bejarano, 1889}).

According to ^{Castro (2001)}, the term alameda, brought in the 16^th century to the Hispanic colonies in America, was used to name not only the sites planted with poplars (Populus spp.), but any "recreation garden" planted with various flowers, herbs and shade trees that functioned as a public garden, and the term was even extended to promenades that were generally large and had wide walkways lined with trees (^{Castro, 2001}). ^{Albardonedo (2015)} points out that an alameda is understood as a public garden of trees, intended for recreation and urban ornamentation, regularly laid out by planting rows of large shade trees.

The custom of naming parks "alamedas" in Hispanic America has been maintained for several centuries, which is why alamedas can be found in cities as distant from each other as Lima, Quito, Orizaba or San Luis Potosí, and even in small towns such as Juchipila, Zacatecas.

Wilhelm Knechtel, who designed Emperor Maximilian's gardens and was in charge of their maintenance, documented in his notes that "...every major city founded by the Spaniards in their colonies has an alameda, where one can enjoy the fresh air once the heat of the day is over..." (^{INAH, 2012}), while ^{Castro (2001)} comments that since these parks began to be built in the novo-Hispanic cities, they have always become a characteristic urban space, and various aspects of political history, culture and social issues are observed in the evolution of these places.

Mexico City's Alameda Central is the oldest urban park in Mexico and the Americas. In this regard, ^{de Solano (1990}) cites that it was the first public park to be built in any city in the Spanish Empire; ^{Muñoz and Isaza (2001)} confirm this, particularly for this continent, and report that it was preceded only by the alameda built in Seville, Spain in 1574 (^{Albardonedo, 2015}).

Since its establishment, the Alameda has met all the criteria that over the centuries have been defined for an UGA, since it was originally a public space under the responsibility of the City government, within its geographic limits. Its construction and design were also intended to be used for the recreation and leisure of the inhabitants of Mexico City (as stated in the town Council minutes), and, although in some accounts it is mentioned that "léperos y menesterosos" (the “rude and the needy”) were not allowed in, this did not imply that it was exclusive to the aristocracy or to the ruling class, unlike many woods, parks and gardens in various parts of the world, which used to be found around the country or urban residences of the nobility for their exclusive use. It was in the 18^th century that several of these places in Europe belonging to the nobility were opened to the citizens (^{Taylor, 1995}).

The next UGAs in the Americas were established in the cities of Quito, Ecuador, later in Lima, Perú, in 1610 (^{Albardonedo, 2015}), and decades later, in the city of Boston in 1640, in what was still the British colony of Massachusetts, with the creation of the Boston Common (^{Ryan et al., 2010}).

Construction of the Alameda and its development

The Alameda was established at the west of the city, near the San Hipólito market and church, next to the western shore of Texcoco Lake. The original layout, by Cristóbal Carvallo, was square in shape and of uncertain initial dimensions (^{Marroquí, 1900}). Due to a dispute over the land it would occupy, it was decided to locate it a little farther away from the tianguis, in front of the hermitage of Santa Veracruz, delimited by a ditch, and two small squares were left: one to the east and the other to the west (^{Marroquí, 1900}).

On February 18^th, 1592, the town Council authorized the Mayor, Diego de Velasco, to buy the brackets to build the irrigation ditches that would surround the city (^{Bejarano, 1889}), and at the same time that the ditch was being dug, they were planting (it is said that the work was carried out by the indigenous people of Iztapalapa) the trees that on April 21^st of the same year, the viceroy ordered to be brought from the town of Coyoacán "to settle and plant the alameda", which numbered up to 1 000 and included black and white poplar trees (Populus alba L. and P. nigra L.), as well as alders (probably Alnus sp.). The work was carried out by Francisco Vázquez, guardian of the Alameda, who carried out the planting "in the course of the year" (^{Bejarano, 1889}; ^{Marroquí, 1900}).

The initial selection of species was appropriate, as the trees originally planted due to the muddiness of the site were P. alba and P. nigra, chosen for their adaptability to wet soils and for their rapid growth. However, their establishment has reportedly met many difficulties due to the periodic flooding and salinity of the water (from the salinity of Texcoco Lake), which was probably the most limiting environmental factor for these species. It is even indicated that "probably the proximity to the tianguis also influenced the survival of the trees, since the passage of people and cattle prevented them from thriving" (^{DGAS, 1956}).

In relation to the above, the initial planting of trees in the Alameda met with several problems and, based on the minutes of the town Council of that time, ^{Marroquí (1900)} quotes that “poplars do not grow fast nor are they beautiful”. Therefore, in 1594, Viceroy Luis de Velasco ordered the city Council to introduce "tall trees with a large crown to beautify the site", and, in January 1595, Juan de Urvela was hired to "take care of this promenade, its planting and irrigation". This situation led Marroquí to suppose that the first ash trees (Fraxinus uhdei (Wenz.) Lingelsh.) were planted between the autumn of 1594 and the winter of the following year. Ash is native to the basin (^{Calderón de Rzedowski and Rzedowski, 2001}) and to the present date remains one of the most widely planted species in Mexico City.

After the departure of Viceroy Luis de Velasco, his successor Gaspar de Zúñiga y Acevedo, Count of Monterrey, had to request the City Council several times to take care of the Alameda, since the ditches were too muddy to allow animals to pass through them. On December 24^th, 1598, he addressed an order to the City Council in which he mandated that the Alameda should have a guard, a fence, a main gate with a fixed lock and a person in charge of cultivating and taking care of the grove; the furthermore warned the aldermen that “if the work was not carried out, he would have it done at the expense of the aldermen's salary…” (^{Marroquí, 1900}; ^{Ruíz, 1964}).

^{Marroquí (1900)} reports that by 1598 the Alameda already had poplars (together with the species mentioned above) and willows, probably the native taxa Salix bonplandiana Kunth (ahuejote) and S. humboldtiana Willd. (Mexican willow), or even the exotic species S. babylonica L. (weeping willow), which had most likely been introduced to New Spain by that time. ^{Marroquí (1900)} also mentions that "ahuehuetes or sabinos (Taxodium mucronatum Ten., i.e., Montezuma cypresses) were also planted" -these being “a species that grows in the vicinity of water and olive trees (Olea europaea L.)- […] in lesser numbers”.

It is important to highlight the planting of both exotic and native species in the Valley of Mexico, many of them hydrophilic, as poplars, willows, ashes and ahuehuetes or junipers were established. The only taxon discordant to the site conditions was O. europae, given that it is recognized for its ability to withstand drought as well as poor and stony soils (^{Lancaster, 1980}). Therefore, the planting of this species in the Alameda could be considered as a cultural imposition or an exaggerated attempt to remind of the Iberian peninsular landscape.

The choice of T. mucronatum as suitable for the conditions of the site, given its proximity to the lake and the occasional flooding of the park, is noteworthy. It is also worth mentioning that the planting of F. uhdei has gained relevance over the years and even centuries, according to the sources consulted, as it is preferred for its great size, beauty, and corpulence, and although it is not a strictly lacustrine species, it thrives best in locations with a humid soil, such as the bottoms of ravines and gallery forests (^{Calderón de Rzedowski and Rzedowski, 2001}). The gradual predominance of ash trees was probably favored by the fact that the lake was drying up in that part of the city despite the persistence of a high groundwater level probably and the occasional floods that occurred during those centuries until the basin was opened.

17^th and 18^th centuries

At the beginning of the 17^th century, a series of improvements were made to the gates and perimeter wall, thanks to the intervention of Viceroy Diego Fernández de Córdoba, Marquis of Guadalcazar (1618). And after a severe flood that occurred in the city in 1635, the viceroy Rodrigo Pacheco de Osorio, Marquis of Cerralvo, ordered improvements to the park, cleaning the irrigation ditches, embanking the walkways, and planting new trees (the species are not mentioned), "removing the old ones" (^{Castro, 2001}).

Problems with livestock persisted at that time; therefore, a series of ordinances were issued to prevent damage, such as those published on February 7^th and 14^th, 1620, which warned that "the transgressor would be punished with 200 pesos fine the first time, with double this sum the second time, and with the loss of the animal the third time". The ordinances even included the application of a penalty of six pesos and ten days' imprisonment to any person who "dares to remove earth or dig holes or remove trees" (^{Manero, 1883}).

It is interesting to note that, given the scarcity of resources at this time, the City Council intended that the post of Mayor of the Alameda be leased and, in exchange, the person in charge would seek to compensate for the expenditure made to obtain the position. Among the possible options were included the rental of space and the sale of the leftovers derived from the maintenance of trees. This situation generated a great deal of controversy, and most of the members of the City Council spoke out against it, under the argument that "the promenade had been made to provide recreation for the neighbors and not to increase the city's revenues" (^{Marroquí, 1900}).

Famous from this period is the representation of the Alameda Central in the renowned screen of the Palace of the Viceroys, which is located on the left side of the same, made between 1676 and 1700 and currently exhibited in the Museum of America in Madrid, Spain (https://www.culturaydeporte.gob.es/museodeamerica/coleccion/america-virreinal/colonial/biombo-m-xico.html). Likewise, ^{Sabau (1994)} presents a reproduction of a mid-18^th century oil painting by an anonymous author, showing the square shape of the Alameda, the central fountain, multiple visitors, and, in the background, the aqueduct from Santa Fe (Figure 1).

Source: http://ceres.mcu.es/pages/ResultSearch?Museo=MAM&txtSimpleSearch=Alameda%20de%20M%E9xico&simpleSearch=0&hipertextSearch=1&search=simple&MuseumsSearch=MAM|&MuseumsRolSearch=11&.

Figure 1 The Alameda of Mexico. Anonymous painter, mid-18^th century. Collection of the Museum of America, Madrid, Spain. 

^{Marroquí (1900)}, based on the review of the town Council minutes and other documents of the time, indicates that from its beginnings and until the conclusion of the viceroyalty, the councils of the City were usually negligent with the maintenance of the Alameda, and often the viceroys regretted its abandonment, so its care and preservation are generally owed to the viceroys, a situation also referred by ^{Luque (2016)}. An example of this occurred with the thirty-seventh Viceroy, Juan de Acuña, Marquis of Casafuerte, who urged the City Council in 1727 to appoint the person in charge of the Alameda, "because it was in a pitiful state". The process having been delayed "with despicable pretexts ...as the time for planting was passing, and if this measure were not taken in time, the Alameda would be in disarray".

In 1769, Viceroy Carlos Francisco de Croix, Marquis of Croix, ordered that the Alameda be extended over the small squares of Santa Isabel and San Diego. The site occupied by one of the burning pits of the Holy Tribunal of the Inquisition (namely, the west end of the current Alameda), also extended southward to Calvario Avenue (today Juárez Avenue) (^{DGAS, 1956}; ^{Gutiérrez, 1968}; ^{Novo, 2005}). These works were started in March of the following year (^{Marroquí, 1900}). This modification gave the Alameda Central a new shape, from square to rectangular ―513 m long and 259 m wide (Figure 2)―, although ^{Prantl and Groso (1901)} report that the dimensions were 452 m by 217 m, being extended from 9.8 to slightly more than 13.2 ha of land.

Source: ^{Pérez (2015)}.

Figure 2 Rectangular layout of the Alameda Central in Mexico City, after the expansion works ordered in 1769, drawn in 1771 by Alejandro Darcourt, infantry captain in Flanders. 

The architectural project of the new Alameda is attributed to engineer Alejandro Darcourt, in whose design its walkways appeared broadened with the layout they have today, and the land was subdivided into 24 triangles or parterres, at whose intersections seven open round plazas surrounded by stone seats were formed (^{Marroquí, 1900}). The work could not be completed before the departure of Viceroy de Croix; however, to the good fortune of the Alameda and the City, he was succeeded by Viceroy Antonio María de Bucareli y Ursúa, who completed the project (^{Marroquí, 1900}). ^{Manero (1883)} writes that the 20 walkways were well lined with poplar and ash trees (the aforementioned Populus and Fraxinus species), symmetrically distributed and with some fruit trees scattered among them. The author also comments that the centers or median strips of the walkways were populated with native flowers and flower species brought from the islands (most probably the Canary Islands) and from Castile, and already acclimatized in Mexico.

^{Marroquí (1900)} states that in 1776, Viceroy Bucareli ordered "to continue the works of remodeling fountains, raising floors, building pipes and planting trees", works that were in charge of the Alderman Juan Lucas Lassaya.

At the end of the 18^th century, an inventory of the trees in the Alameda was made. This is known thanks to the review of a file by ^{Marroquí (1900)}, which recorded the existence of 1 995 trees: 1 596 ash trees, 287 willows, 98 poplars, eight alders, three willows (probably another species), one juniper, one zompantle (Erythrina americana Mill.), and one olive tree. It is interesting to note how this procedure, necessary for the proper management of urban trees, was carried out by those in charge of the Alameda and for which purpose, presumably, they programmed their activities.

19^th century

^{Castro (2001)} comments that the Alameda Central was seriously affected during the War of Independence (1810-1821), due to the fact that the soldiers took shelter in it and cut the trees to use them as firewood, and to the lack of personnel for its maintenance. Consequently ―this author writes, based on documents from the early 19^th century―, by 1822 there were only 1 600 trees (of which 1 596 already existed at the end of the seventeenth century), and the inexistence of nurseries to cultivate trees for the City forced those in charge of the maintenance of the Alameda "to create a nursery in four of its parterres in order to produce the required trees and also ornamental plants such as roses, jimsonweeds, wallflowers, poppies and carnations" (^{Castro, 2001}). This author comments that it was not until 1826 when it was possible to carry out a reconstruction of the round plazas, pillars and statues of the park, as well as to replace the trees. According to ^{Marroquí (1900)}, this work was continued well into the third decade of that century, beautifying the promenade and cleaning the ditches that formerly "gave it a rather unpleasant outward appearance".

^{Marroquí (1900)} and ^{Novo (2005)} point out that an additional factor of disturbance in the Alameda occurred in 1825, when the City Council authorized a group of citizens to celebrate in it the ceremony of the Cry of Independence, which resulted in serious damage to the site; the ceremony continued to be held there for several years until it was relocated to the Zócalo.

An example of the importance of the Alameda Central for the people of the capital is provided by ^{Spahr (2011)}, who documents that General John A. Quitman, civil and military governor of Mexico City during the occupation of the U. S. army at the end of the war of intervention, ordered that the Alameda be rehabilitated for the recreation of the inhabitants, surely with the purpose of ingratiating himself with the inhabitants of the capital city.

After the U. S. intervention, the economic situation of the City was very poor and, according to documents of the City Council of that time consulted by ^{Galindo y Villa (1901)}, by 1850 "the grove of the Alameda was mostly destroyed, and the pillar tops were covered by weeds and the paving was loose". This author refers that in a document of the City Council of 1851, mentioning that the Alameda "rather than a promenade, looked like an uncultivated and wild forest, much more appropriate to serve as a den than for the recreation of the inhabitants of a civilized town… and as a result of this neglect, the meadows were often occupied by idle and lowly people, and robberies in broad daylight were constant”. In relation to the above and due to the fact that the economic situation of the City Council was still very precarious, ^{Eguiarte (1986)} quotes, based on journalistic documents of that time, that "the state of sedimentation (ensolve) and filth in which the ditches (acequias) that surround the Alameda have long been drawing the attention of the public". For this reason, the reporter recommended the following: “…it is imperative to clean and make the Alameda ditches navigable”. Consequently, the City Council proceeded to repopulate the Alameda by planting 800 trees (no mention is made of which species, but they were very likely ash trees) and made improvements in the infrastructure of the site (^{Galindo y Villa, 1901}; ^{Castro, 2001}).

It took 17 years until the beginning of the brief Empire of Maximilian of Habsburg (1864 to 1867) for improvement activities to be carried out again in the Alameda. ^{Marroquí (1900)} refers that among Maximilian's directives it was determined that the care of the this place would be in the charge of Empress Carlota, who ordered that “…the meadows [be] cleared of bushes and weeds that gave it a rough and rustic appearance, in order to plant as many trees as possible ―ensuring that their trunks [be] kept straight and clean―, a rose garden and English grass”. “Willows and poplars were planted, and so were white cedars (probably Cupressus lusitanica Mill.), alders, zompantles (Erythrina coralloides DC. or E. americana), eucalyptus trees (Eucalyptus spp.), privets (Ligustrum lucidum W. T. Aiton o L. japonicum Thunb.), ornamental banana trees which may have been Platanus spp., although it is quite possible that they were Musa ensete J. F. Gmel., as individuals of this species can be seen in a photo in the book by ^{Galindo y Villa (1901)}, palms (possibly Phoenix canariensis Chabaud or P. dactylifera L.), and peppercorn trees (Schinus molle L.)” (^{Marroquí, 1900}; ^{DGAS, 1956}; ^{Novo, 2005}).

This plantation diversifies the species used and includes several exotic species not previously established, such as common privets and ornamental banana trees; the use of the white cedar, a native tree taxon that had not been mentioned before in the site, is noteworthy, as is the fact that the planting of this species, together with the planting of flame coral, peppercorn and palm trees would indicate a change in the soil moisture conditions in the Alameda, as they require less water for their development than those planted almost two centuries earlier.

Within the context of that time, Knechtel described in his memoirs that the Alameda Central was a "large rectangle 300 m long by 150 m wide, with gates on its sides and three large central walkways and 24 diagonal paths". It also indicates that among the tree species were "oaks", however, it is not possible to define which species is being referred to, since this is a common name used in a very broad manner, and it is unlikely that species of the Quercus genus (oaks) had been planted at that time, for although native to the basin, they are found in the mountain area. Other planted species were "poplars, willows, and ash trees", which he considered to be "the appropriate trees for the humid soils of the area" (^{INAH, 2012}). Knechtel pointed out that the Alameda Central was the city's park par excellence and a place of which all city dwellers were proud, since "for Mexicans it would be what Regent's Park is for Londoners or the Champs Élyséss for Parisians" (^{INAH, 2012}).

In 1869, once the Second Mexican Empire was over and the Republic had been restored, the irrigation ditches surrounding the Alameda began to be covered up, a cleaning that took four years to complete, and by 1872 a perimeter sidewalk was built (^{Marroquí, 1900}).

A view of the Alameda Central close to the period mentioned above was painted by ^{Castro et al. (1869)}, who produced a series of pictorial works that became very popular thanks to the lithographs that were published and that have survived to the present day (Figure 3).

Source: https://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra-visor/mexico-y-sus-alrededores-coleccion-de-monumentos-trajes-y-paisajes--0/html/00cfadda-82b2-11df-acc7-002185ce6064_47.htm.

Figure 3 The Alameda of Mexico. Lithograph of Mexico and its surroundings. Plate VI. ^{Castro et al. (1869)}. 

Urban transcendence of the Alameda Central from the Viceroyalty to the mid-19 ^th century

Figures 4 to 6 show a series of maps of Mexico City from 1628 to 1858, in which the Alameda Central was identified with a white semicircle and the Main or Royal Square, later known as the Square of the Constitution or Zócalo, was located with a yellow square as a reference.

Source: http://mexicomaxico.org/Tenoch/TenochTrasmonte.htm.

Figure 4 Map of Mexico City made by Juan Gómez de Trasmonte in 1628. The Alameda Central can be seen in the white circle, and, as a reference, the yellow square surrounds the Main Square, known today as Zócalo. 

Source: https://www.geografiainfinita.com/2016/12/evolucion-de-la-ciudad-de-mexico-a-traves-de-los-mapas/.

Figure 5 Map of Mexico City drawn by Lieutenant Colonel of Dragoons Diego García Conde in 1795. The Alameda Central can already be seen in a rectangular shape in the white oval. As a reference, the yellow square surrounds the Main Square, known today as Zócalo. 

Source: https://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra-visor/mexico-y-sus-alrededores-coleccion-de-monumentos-trajes-y-paisajes--0/html/00cfadda-82b2-11df-acc7-002185ce6064_4.htm.

Figure 6 Map of Mexico City drawn by the Decaen Typographic Printing Company in 1858. The Alameda Central can be seen in the white oval and, as a reference, in the yellow square is the Main Square, known today as Zócalo. 

In the map of 1628 (a little over 35 years after the construction of the Alameda), the west of the city is towards the bottom, urban growth may be observed on a north-south axis. The Alameda is the only UGA in Mexico City, because the squares and atriums of the churches, even though they could be landscaped, did not have a significant tree cover. This situation can also be perceived in Nicolas de Fer's map of 1715, available on the Internet.

In the 1795 map (Figure 5), the Alameda is already rectangular in shape according to the enlargement work carried out in 1769. However, it continues to be the only important urban green area in the city, although it is interesting to note that the map shows a small garden in the Main Square, and the avenue named Paseo de Bucareli has a canopy of trees (lower left side).

In the 1858 map (Figure 6), the City does not yet show a considerable expansion; further growth towards the north and south can be observed, and urban growth towards the west is consolidated with the outline of what will later be the San Cosme Causeway. The plan shows the Alameda of Santiago Tlatelolco, which would then be the second UGA of considerable size in the city. The Main Square no longer has the landscaped area shown in the previous map, and the Chapultepec and La Piedad roads exhibit the same tree-lined alignment as Paseo de Bucareli.