Capital natural y organización social

The Carbonero-Jacales ejido was formed in the year 1934. It has the second largest municipal forest surface area of Huayacocotla, Veracruz. It comprises 3 142 ha, of which 549 ha are conservation areas and restricted forest harvesting; 1 345 ha has to for timber production and 1 258 ha are another use (urban, plots and not feasible to forest use). 1 348.00 ha constitute natural timber capital (^{Sarukhán et al., 2012}), with an annual timber exploitation of 7 000 m³ t.s.v., distributed among Pinus, Quercus, Cupressus, Abies, Alnus, and other broadleaf species. The timber forest resources have been one of the main sources of employment and income through the production of goods and services since 1978; today, 200 ejidatarios (23.5 % women and 76.5 % men) depend directly on these resources, and settlers (children of the ejidatarios) and tenant farmers depend indirectly on them. This causes the average surface area per ejidatario to be only 6.74 has; thus, they are unable to live exclusively from the forest and are forced to engage in other economic activities in order to complement their income. This situation is still more restrictive, as the job is considered to be temporary, and settlers and tenant farmers are also employed.

There is a high degree of competition against other forest ejidos and small land owners in the area as to commercialization in terms of the offered sum and the demand, which renders the sales price of timber products extremely movable.

The Silvicultural Development Method (MDS, for its acronym in Spanish) has been implemented in the region as an alternative public policy (^{Vázquez, 2009}) to prevent degradation in forest management since 1978, when the exploitation of the timber-yielding forest began in the state of Veracruz, immediately after the end of the forestry closed season. The exploitation began with a management program that remained valid until 1981 and is at present in its fourth felling cycle. However, only 55.6 % of the surveyees know that their forests are being managed through the MDS system. Not every ejidatario of Carbonero-Jacales is familiar with the characteristics of the MDS; they simply apply it following the directions of the ejidal leadership. This points to the need to let the ejidatarios know the characteristics of the MDS through first-hand experience (^{Rodríguez, 2010}), a training that would increase the efficiency of the organization.

Forest conservation

In relation to the forest exclusively, 83.33 % of the ejidatarios stated that recovery and conservation are occurring today as a consequence of the correct application of the PMFC, of the MDS and of better forest management practices (BMPs), such as forest policy schemes all of which have contributed to the conservation of this element of the timber capital. This agrees with the findings of ^{Álvarez (2010)}, as the members of the ejido consider that the deterioration of their natural resources would have a high cost for their economy and well-being.

Although attempts have been made at the ejido to rigorously apply the PMFC in its forests as a way to seek interaction between the social, human, physical, financial, natural capitals (^{Sarukhán et al., 2012}), with measures to promote the recovery and prevent the deterioration of forest resources (^{Regil et al., 2014}). Its operation has had some deficiencies because certain activities to support the production are not completed due to the high costs of the labor.

Deficiencies were also detected in the clearing, pruning and thinning maintenance processes, a situation that does not rapidly revitalize the resilience of the forest. It was observed that in many previously exploited areas these actions have not been implemented, although new tree masses are already being formed, including those established through natural regeneration.

An example of capital coordination (^{Flores, 2002}; ^{Sarukhán et al., 2012}) can be seen in the organization of ejidatarios to establish, recover and conserve the forest in the felling areas, using the regeneration method known as parent trees in order to ensure the supply of seeds and establish natural regeneration. Work was carried out in four areas -El Sabino, La Ampliación, La Bomba and La Brecha-, generating employment and income.

The ejido has a forest nursery that produces 250 000 plants each year for reforestation purposes. In the year 2014 the felling areas were completely reforested with P. patula (67.63 %), Cupressus benthamii (14.54 %), P. montezumae (8.40 %), P. ayacahuite (7.24 %) and P. pseudostrobus (2.18 %). This diversity maintains the makeup of the forest and prevents the vegetation from being monospecific. Propitious climate conditions and the implementation of the activity during the transplanting season ensure a survival rate of 95 %. Certain broadleaves, like Quercus spp., regenerate through side shoots.

The ejidatarios formed a community organization with shared interests in order to implement complementary activities for protection against grazing, fires and clandestine felling, as well as for disease and pest control, in the production and felling areas (^{Rodríguez, 2010}). Actions to prevent fires begin with the piling up and burning of the residues resulting from exploitation, which in average add up to 5 %. At the time when 100 exploited areas were reforested, some were enclosed using barbed wire as a protection, and a watchman was designated to protect against grazing. Only those areas with the highest risk (approximately 30 %) were protected. Norms have been established for grazing in the soil use regulations, and penalties are applied in order to prevent the cattle from causing damage. This is a clear example of how the social norms regulating collective actions are established and implemented, as ^{Portes (2004)} points out.

he natural timber capital of the ejido is under permanent threat due to the deterioration or destruction resulting from various factors; for this reason, attempts are being made to strengthen and reproduce it in order to glean its benefits. ^{Jiménez and Piña (2011)} mention sustainable management of the natural capital as a major factor for its preservation. Actions for its promotion and preservation can be various, including protection against grazing and clandestine felling, as well as fire prevention and firefighting (warning signs, clearing of bordering trails and firebreaks, and the formation of a community brigade from January to June); the timely detection of pests and diseases, and maintenance during the production stage, including: 1) yearly weedings during three years in previously exploited areas; 2) pruning applied to previous reforestations; 3) thinning of deforested areas, and prevention of overexploitation.

Soil preservation

87.67 % of the surveyed ejidatarios consider the soil to be protected. Field tours showed no evident degradation, and the ejidatarios carry out activities for its conservation after exploitation, such as preventing the formation of hauling trails; reserving protected areas; refraining from felling trees in slopes of more than 100 %; implementing soil conservation works in 20 % of the area (borders, level curves, logs dam) and carrying out reforestation in all the exploited areas. The degradation of the soil is not a cause for concern because herbaceous vegetation produces new shoots before the start of reforestation and of the rainy season. The preservation of the soil is closely related to the conservation and the productivity of the cumulative timber capital (^{Flores, 2002}) and is part of the public policies established in the management program as a conservation strategy (^{Caballero, 2004}; ^{Vázquez, 2009}).

Water conservation

The same percentage of the surveyees considers that the springs and dams of the ejido are well protected and conserved. Water is regarded as a good that meets a demand for social well-being for the community and is directly related to the forest, categorized as a public good and as a support of life (^{Álvarez, 2010}; ^{Ekins, 2003}). The Carbonero-Jacales ejido has two dams (El Llanito and El Crucero) and five permanent springs (two in El Arenal, one in Palo Hueco, one in Cruz Barrida, and one in Ocote Colorado). The ejido has promoted the protection of springs through a series of actions established according to the norms of Semarnat (NOM-152-SEMARNAT-2006), such as leaving conservation areas around the water bodies and building works for their permanence.

Wildlife conservation

Wildlife is another resource related to the forest and is regarded as an ecological value that must be incorporated to planning (^{Álvarez, 2010}). 87.78 % of the ejidatarios point out that wildlife conservation is favorable. In the area of the ejido there are only smaller species, such as foxes (Vulpes vulpes Linnaeus, 1758), badgers (Nasua narica Linnaeus, 1766), possums (Didelphis marsupialis Linnaeus, 1758), racoons (Procyon cancrivorus Cuvier, 1798), armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus Linnaeus, 1758), hares (Lepus sp.), rabbits (Syvilagus floridanus J. A. Allen, 1890) and squirrels (Sciurus aureogaster F. Cuvier, 1829). The community conserves and protects them through actions established in the forest management program and in the regulations of the ejido, e.g. banning hunting by means of signs that indicate this prohibition, defining and reserving special areas for wildlife, and making recommendations and giving reminders at the assemblies.

The practices for the conservation of the natural capital are established in the PMFC and in the internal regulations of the ejido, and are the responsibility of the authorities of the ejido, its manager, its forest chief, the technician, the ejidatarios and Semarnat. For example, the representative of Semarnat in the region stated that the Carbonero-Jacales ejido has complied with the norms, and this has been reflected in the end-of-the- year settlements. The institution verifies that the specifications established by the PMFC have been met. In complying with these norms, the ejido starts from the premise that the adequate use of the forest resources will allow it to reach higher levels of well-being (^{Álvarez, 2010}). The participation of Conafor is through yearly calls based upon specific guidelines, but it is not constant, and only when the ejido processes a request for support and this is approved, the regional representative of the institution verifies that the granted economic resource has been properly used and, if so, determines that the forests of the ejido have been adequately managed.

According to the Director of Fomento Agropecuario y Forestal (Agricultural, Livestock and Forest Development), forest resources are being properly managed at Carbonero; he regards this ejido as exemplary, as it has integrated a timber forest chain which, though incomplete, generates more forest managers informed of the presence of various issues in the management of its forests, such as lack of financing for the payment of salaries for productive activities, felling and supplies, and pointed out that, sometimes, they have to sell timber as roundwood or request loans in order to meet the weekly payments of those workers included in its payroll. Also, they report transgressions to the regulations in relation to grazing, commercialization of timber products and irregularity in the timely payments for the sale of wood.

Schemes for the protection of the natural timber capital

The strategy for the recovery of agricultural areas, plains and abandoned plots is implemented by agreement by the assembly as a scheme for the solution of common issues related to the organization and to the timber products (^{Valtierra, 1998}; ^{Palerm, 2010}), in order to reincorporate and increase the forest surface areas through plantations or through the recovery of plots with arboreal vegetation that, by law, cannot be felled. These actions have made it possible to augment the forest surface area, although the ejido has not quantified the increase. ^{Jiménez and Piña (2011)} stated that it is important to strengthen the interpersonal and associative relationships. Participation, democracy, autonomy, management, questioning and consensus are all actions that have been considered in the agenda of the assemblies of ejidatarios for the discussion of their problems and their work proposals for the purpose of conserving the timber and other associated resources.

The ejidatarios are convinced that they are managing their natural timber capital in the best possible way, since, they observe, the present conditions of the structure and makeup of the forest are good.

Social organization

Due to its operational characteristics, the ejido fits the definition of social organization by ^{Krieger (2001)} and the concept of organizational dynamics of ^{Chiavenato (2009)}. At the ejido, the exploitation of forest timber and other associated resources has been regulated by the various forest laws, the most prominent of which is the Ley General de Desarrollo Forestal Sustentable (General Law for a Sustainable Forest Development), with its corresponding regulations, as well as by the official norms NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010 and NOM-152-SEMARNAT-2008, and through the PMFC, all of which are based on the implementation of public forest policies (^{Caballero, 2004}; ^{Vázquez, 2009}).

In 1978, the ejido was constituted as an EFC through the figure of a Unidad Productora de Materias Primas Forestales (Forest Raw Materials Production Unit) (UPMPF, for its acronym in Spanish), with a specific community organizational structure. ^{Rodríguez (2010)} points out that a cohesive element in a community company is the existence of common ends for the adequate exploitation of its natural resources. The organizational scheme of the ejido for the management of its forest and associated resources includes a structural design that is independent from its authorities, consisting of a manager, a coordinator, a forest chief and a documenter, who are replaced every two years. Furthermore, it evidences their ability for self-organization, self- management, leadership and problem solving (^{Valtierra, 1998}; ^{Palerm, 2010}), as well as their autonomy (^{Cerda and Barroso, 2011}).

The survey allowed the identification of the following elements: 90 % of the interviewees stated that there is autonomy in the decision-making processes and in the agreements in the assemblies; 90 % of these mention the existence of democracy in the formation and election of the organizational figures; 78 % point out the existence of communication between the authorities and the assembly, and 72 % clarify that there is a high degree of participation by the ejidatarios in various activities, although much of this is enforced by the regulations of the ejido.

Assemblies take place once a month, and, when the situation warrants it, extraordinary meetings are held. Only ejidatarios attend when issues related exclusively to the ejido are addressed. This strengthens social organization as the best choice to regulate the exploitation of its natural capital (^{Sánchez and Valtierra, 2003}). Situations related to the community are addressed in community meetings attended by the ejidatarios, the settlers and the tenant farmers. The ejidatarios often question the views and decisions, as there are two opposite power groups. In the meetings, when issues related to the exploitation of the forest are addressed, both men and women participate with their opinions about the work to be carried out in the forest.

Also, communication is established for the discussion of proposals and alternatives between the ejidatarios and the authorities of the ejido. This makes it possible to generate and promote organizational autonomy and effective self- management (^{Cerda and Barroso, 2011}) for decision making on the actions that are proposed and carried out within the ejido. At Carbonero-Jacales there is a good structural design favoring democracy as an essential element for the adequate functioning of a social organization, according to ^{Cichocki (2011)}, who highlights the importance of this posture in every social organization. This scheme is manifest in the procedure for the election of the authorities of the ejido. In other ejidos, the election takes place during the assembly, on the same day. At Carbonero-Jacales, instead, slates are formed, proposed to the assembly, and given a time window to carry out persuasion campaigns. Finally, the slates are elected by the assembly through direct, secret vote.

^{Rodríguez (2010)} stresses that active and conscious participation by every ejidatario is important for the adequate functioning and strengthening of the ejido. According to 72 % of the surveyees, the ejidatarios are involved in various activities and actions related to the exploitation of the forest. This form of coexistence is voluntary and is based on regulations, which promotes the sense of belonging (^{Vainrub, 2006}). The norms of the ejido are established in the internal regulations or by agreement in an assembly, and economic sanctions are applied to those who do not comply with them. These sanctions range between suspension of agrarian rights to cancellation of the benefits of the felling areas.

Not all the ejidatarios participate, for a variety of reasons (administrative non-conformities, non-compliance with agreements, nepotism, favoritism), stemming mainly from the unequal distribution of jobs and income to the settlers and tenant farmers, particularly when the activities diminish, which generates frictions, lack of interest, conflicts, resentments and a lack of a sense of belonging, or sense of being excluded.

Conflicts also arise between two power groups which usually confront each other in the assemblies, affecting the relationships of the social capital. Despite this situation, the schemes for communication, raising of issues and proposals for their solution are implemented through interaction and consensus in the assembly with the authorities of the ejido.

The ejido does not implement a capitalization and liquidity scheme, a situation that generates problems each year for the weekly payment of salaries, which forces the authorities to request advance payments or loans or to sell part of their timber as roundwood (instead of industrializing it) as a means to obtain liquidity. This situation becomes even more serious when the clients who buy the timber delay their payments.

The Carbonero-Jacales ejido works as a community social enterprise, and therefore generates no profits. All the resources are used to cover various expenses for the benefit of the community (aid for the sick, for deceases, for schools; however, some of these expenses are sumptuary, for example, community celebrations and other celebratory, institutional or sports events. The direct benefits obtained by the ejidatarios and their families are payments for the work they carry out within the various activities of the production chain. However, it should be noted that they are not sufficient to allow them to live exclusively from the exploitation of their natural timber capital, and therefore they must engage in other activities in order to complement their income.

As an organizational strategy, the Carbonero-Jacales ejido developed a forest production chain to increase the efficiency of the organization in the exploitation of timber. The chain consists of the production, felling, supply, industrialization, commercialization and management areas, all of which have established formulas that make it possible to add value, generate jobs, obtain income and enhance the well-being of the community.