Organic agriculture

In the previous section the definition about what is considered to be the system of organic agriculture is mentioned, which for the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)⁸, in addition to avoiding or excluding the use of fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and synthetically made additives, includes production technology based on crop rotation; the use of animal manure; the use of legumes, green fertilizers, organic residues (originated outside the property), natural minerals; aspects of biological pest control to maintain the structure and productivity of the soil, contributing nutrients for the plants and controlling insects, weeds and other pests; and mechanical farming, which makes organic agriculture be a development strategy that attempts to change some limitations found in conventional production in addition to a production method, since its foundation is not based solely on a better management of the soil and promotion of the use of local inputs, but also a higher added value and a fairer commercialization chain (^{Soto, 2003}).

Market and tianguis (street market)

Throughout time man has found himself in the need to exchange. This is where the market concept derives, which is an economic model where certain needs or desires are attempted to be satisfied. This model has two actors, the offering and demanding parties, who will achieve the exchange provided that they both reach an agreement (^{Braudel, 1986}).

To reach the market, man must: 1) be a producer of goods; 2) have the tendency to trade, swap or exchange something for another; therefore, it is necessary for there to be an excess in production; 3) assume a selfish behavior and act according to his interests; and 4) must have the certainty of being able to exchange the excess of his production (^{Smith, 1988}).

The origin of the green, environmental, ecological, organic or sustainable market was in Europe (^{Coddington, 1993}; ^{Fisk, 1973}; ^{Fuller, 1999}). It emerged due to the identification of some specific productions that are considered harmful to the terrestrial atmosphere (^{Shil, 2012}). Since 1960 environmental issues gained importance because consumers became familiar with the products fabricated in an environment-friendly manner (^{Prakash, 2002}). They are now more aware that, in addition to the health benefits, consuming organic products helps reduce the ecological footprint, decrease the distance that food travels from its origin to its place of consumption (since organic consumption is local), mitigate the effect of climate change, and it is the contribution of producers to biodiversity conservation, fair trade, sustainability and food security (^{Kilcher et al., 2011}). In addition, consumers take into account the background and political strength of the organic movement; therefore, the awareness of the population and the role of the State promote the production and the consumption of these products (^{Gómez et al., 2004}).

After 1980 the offering parties were pressured to improve the environmental damage generated by the production of the products they offered. Therefore, barriers arose and the producers resorted to strategies to respond correctly to this change (^{Peattie and Ratnayaka, 1995}).

This generated alternatives towards markets that integrate all the activities, such as fabrication, management and commercialization. The aim was to facilitate the exchange and to satisfy human needs or desires. The strategies applied are: promotion of the product using attributes, systems, policies and processes which, in addition to increasing sales, make the companies or sellers work in issues of industrial ecology, considering these matters as an opportunity for responsibility, business development and entrepreneurial growth, generating the minimum negative impact on the environment (^{Prakash, 2002}; ^{Polonsky, 1994}; ^{Coddington, 1993}).

Sustainability

The definition of large-scale sustainability is the capability to behave in a way which allows the possibility of having the current well-being, in the future or for future generations (^{Solow, 1991}). However, this concept has a multidisciplinary character, since sustainability may be: economic, environmental and sociocultural. Therefore, there is no specific objective about what should be inherited to future generations.

For the case of this study, the economic approach of sustainability is what is most interesting, since the objective is to understand the fact that implementing a productive method alternative to the conventional, and becoming integrated in a tianguis or organic market, can improve the economic situation of small-scale producers.

Then, sustainability is “a set of economic patterns through which intergenerational welfare does not decrease” (^{Arrow et al., 2010}). Therefore, sustainability must take into account that the companies or people who are devoted to the production of goods or services will consider the conditions of the economy to continue with their productive strategies. This implies that the investment in sustainability will increase when the economy is restrictive, because it will seek the way of doing more with less, which tends to increase the sustainability strategies due to innovation (^{Barnett et al., 2014}).

Now it is necessary to reach a consensus on the definition of sustainability and its relationship to agriculture, as well as the conditions for both to happen.

Sustainability and agriculture

Sustainability must reduce costs and increase the economic efficiency and viability, promoting a diverse and flexible agricultural system (^{Altieri and Nichols, 2000}).

The hypothesis is that a system will be economically sustainable if it provides dietary self-sufficiency, if it generates an annual income for the family group, and if it decreases the risk in time (^{Sarandón et al., 2008}).

A sustainable agricultural production system allows maintaining the goods and services that satisfy the economic, ecological and sociocultural needs of individuals through time within the physical limits of the agro-ecosystems that sustain those needs. That is, that the satisfaction of the needs of the population cannot be achieved at the expense of natural resources (^{Sarandón et al., 2008}). Consequently, the conditions necessary to implement sustainable agriculture are: 1) that it is sufficiently productive; 2) economically viable; 3) ecologically adequate; and 4) culturally and socially acceptable (^{Sarandón, 2002}).

Therefore, sustainable organic agriculture takes place when it provides: dietary self-sufficiency, sufficient income, and a decrease in economic risk. When it conserves or improves the base of productive resources, avoiding or reducing the impact on the resources, and when it maintains or improves social capital, both in their quality of life and in their level of dependency, degree of social integration, level of awareness and ecological knowledge (^{Sarandón et al., 2008}).

Situation of organic agriculture in Mexico

In Mexico, organic agriculture emerged as a result of influence from foreign countries that began to demand tropical and winter products, produced under an organic system. This request took place through some trading companies, NGOs and religious groups (Liberation Theology) (^{Gómez et al., 2010}). Organic production in Mexico began in areas where the synthesis inputs were not used; such was the case of indigenous regions and traditional agriculture areas in the states of Chiapas and Oaxaca (^{Gómez et al., 2010}).

Later, the consumers took on an important role in the development and establishment of markets directed towards the sale of organic products, recognizing that through their choice they could generate a positive effect both in the environment and in the welfare of small-scale producers (^{Soto, 2003}).

From its beginning, the growth in organic production has had a large impact in Mexico (^{Gómez et al., 2004}). This growth is centered in the states of Chiapas, Oaxaca, Veracruz (states where around 70 % of the country’s biodiversity is found) and Michoacán (^{Gómez et al., 2010}). This denotes the particular dimension of organic agriculture in Mexico, since its production is closely linked to the geography of poverty and biodiversity, connecting mostly with small-scale producers characterized mainly by their levels of poverty and marginalization (^{Gómez et al., 2010}). Therefore, a correct strategy can lead those who carry out this agricultural activity to the reduction of their dietary dependency, the generation of rural employment, the improvement in their income, the reduction of migration from poverty, and the generation of positive externalities (^{Gómez et al., 2010}).

Between 1996 and 2008, its annual growth was more than 3 %. As a result of this, formal employment has increased up to 26 % annually. Concerning the currencies, an increase of 28 % took place and more than 129 000 producers and 400 000 hectares have been involved (^{Gómez et al., 2010}). In terms of the production surface, an increase has also been seen during the last decade, going from 23 265 hectares in 1996 to more than 400 000 ha in 2005 (^{De la Cruz et al., 2012}, citing Gómez 2005).

In the period of 1996 to 2012, there has been an increase of 17.31 % of the Mean Rate of Annual Growth (Tasa Media de Crecimiento Annual, TMCA) in Mexico, regarding the number of producers who work under the standards of organic production, as shown in Figure 1.

Source: authors’ elaboration based on information by ^{Gómez et al., 2010}.

Figure 1 Mexico. Number of producers under the organic production system (1996-2012). 

The growth of the organic sector represents an advantage in the struggle to attain a more sustainable dietary system. Therefore, it is necessary to implement institutional plans that allow a broader development, plans and programs that are focused on the internal market, where the small-scale producers are the ones who could obtain comparative advantages (^{De la Cruz et al., 2012}).

It is also important that small-scale producers become organized with the goal of eliminating the exclusion that globalization has generated. In order for this, it would be necessary: 1) to enter the market with high-quality products and in adequate volumes; 2) to implement internal systems of control that ensure the compliance of criteria for organic production; 3) to have training to protect the quality and guidelines of production; 4) to make organic production a way of life, rather than a production system; and 5) to create technical panels to promote a greater commitment between producers (^{Gómez and Gómez, 2004}).

Presently there is a higher number of commercialization initiatives through many channels, such as specialized stores, holistic stores and coffee shops. However, the importance of the tianguis and organic markets is that both in rural and urban communities they help to connect the populations from the farmland and the city, to promote the regional market, and to consume directly and at a fair price for producers and consumers. In addition, they help to generate ecological and social awareness to produce and consume responsibly, they promote the principles of organic agriculture and they offer spaces for sharing and learning (^{REDAC, 2013}). Therefore, it is expected that the integration of small-scale producers to tianguis or organic markets that are part of the REDAC will increase and it will help them to increase their production, improve their levels of commercialization, and therefore, to increase their economic sustainability.

This is because the integration into a tianguis or market allows the producer to acquire certain obligations and benefits. For example, the producer is forced to comply with the requirements considered within organic production, which originates higher credibility for people who purchase his product. In addition, they have a fixed space to commercialize their products, making it easy for people who visit the tianguis or organic markets of the network every week to locate them. Therefore, it is considered that the relationship between the income of small-scale producers and the markets and tianguis that make up the REDAC is positive.

Creation of the first tianguis and organic markets in Mexico

In Mexico, the first tianguis or organic markets emerged independently and in different contexts, although always in urban areas. In their beginning they were established taking advantage of the support by educational, cultural or municipal institutions. The main characteristic of their appearance was the preoccupation about the risk to health, fostered by the forms of production, processing and commercialization of foods, in addition to the impact of these systems on the environment (^{Escalona, 2009}).

The beginning of these tianguis and organic markets took place in Guadalajara in 1998; the first proposal was established as a sales point called Ecotienda, which arose due to the concern of various citizens to continue with the practices learned in the environmental education workshops promoted by Jalisco’s Ecological Collective in the decade of the 1980s. Later, various producers connected, establishing the Circle of Responsible Production and Consumption, transforming the Ecotienda into a weekly space to carry out the exchange between farmland and city, promoting local alternatives of organic production, fair trade and responsible consumption, where the activities of teaching, promotion, outreach and market relations are fundamental (^{García, 2015}).

The Network of Consumers of Organic Producers was created in Chapingo in 2001, from the initiative of students, academia and consumers. By 2003, with the participation of academic groups from the Universidad Autónoma Chapingo, consumers, civil society organizations, students and producers, this idea transformed into the Chapingo Organic Tianguis, whose intention was to carry out material, cultural and market relations exchange where the main idea was direct sales (^{García, 2015}).

The third initiative took place due to the interest of consumers and producers worried for the environment, safety and food security, who organized three organic fairs, contacting producers from the municipality of Teocelo (Veracruz). The idea of opening a permanent organic market was a result of this, and by 2003 the Xalapa Agroecological Tianguis was created. The Universidad Veracruzana supported this project and contributed academic staff for its coordination. The main idea of this tianguis was the promotion of producers from nearby rural areas and direct sales (^{García, 2015}).

By 2003 the El Pochote Organic Tianguis arose as protest against the installation of a McDonald’s in the historical center of Oaxaca. This project was carried out from the initiative of professors, artists, and producers invited (the main promoter was Professor Francisco Toledo) (^{Nelson et al., 2007}).

Another one of the initiatives of tianguis and organic markets in Mexico is the Tlaxcala Alternative Market. The meetings for its creation began in 2003; however, the market began activities in 2005. Its aim was the promotion of a culture of responsible consumption and agroecological production in its social, economic, environmental and cultural aspects. The development of this market took place with the participation of Ana Elena Caballero (coordinator of the project), organizations like Proyecto de Desarrollo Integral Vicente Guerrero A.C., Centro Campesino para el Desarrollo Sustentable A.C., Casa de Promoción Social Presentación de Tlaxcala and Herbario de Tlaxcala. Among other actors, the following: Dr. Rita Schwentesius, Dr. Manuel Ángel Gómez Cruz, and M.Sc. Laura Gómez Tovar, who provided advice in the process; Mr. Santiago Martini, Mrs. Ofelia Cova Juárez and Dr. Jürgens (with support in cooperative principles, promotion and productive processes, respectively) (^{García, 2015}).

Among the main characteristics of the markets there is the promotion of a better diet through organic products, and the protection of the environment; however, all the street and organic markets are independent entities and each one has its own characteristics (^{REDAC, 2013}; ^{Schwentesius et al., 2013}).

For these initiatives of commercialization to function, producers must be organized to request supports, access to information, and to increase the credibility of their production methods (^{Gómez et al., 2005}).

In the next section, the origin, objectives, functioning and integration of the Mexican Network of Street and Organic Markets (Red Mexicana de Tianguis y Mercados Orgánicos) will be addressed, which is one of the most important actors in Mexico for the development of this type of agriculture at the small and medium scale.

Red Mexicana de Tianguis y Mercados Orgánicos

The Mexican Network of Street and Organic Markets (Red Mexicana de Tianguis y Mercados Orgánicos REDAC) was created in 2004. It was constituted legally in 2008 with the objective of gaining access to financial resources for its development. It is a civil society group, integrated by street markets and local and regional organic markets of small-scale or medium-scale producers, consumers and promoters. From 2004 to 2010 the REDAC had the financial support of the Falls Brook Centre NGO from Canada; this allowed covering the expenses of two to three meetings per year, paying for two representatives per market or tianguis, food, lodgings and transport expenses; in addition, the expenses for promotion and outreach were also covered. During 2010 and 2011 financing was secured from SAGARPA to support the Participative Certification (Certificación Participativa, CP); with this, training workshops were organized around production and certification, as well as outreach materials. It should be highlighted that currently the network does not receive direct economic contributions from members of the organic and street markets (^{Schwentesius et al., 2013}).

Because the tianguis and organic markets are located from Baja California to Chiapas, in 2010 the REDAC was divided into three regions: center-north, gulf and south (^{Schwentesius et al., 2013}).

Its origin took place due to the growing number of tianguis and organic markets throughout the Mexican republic, especially in the center and south of the country. The emergence of these markets was from the initiative of academia, consumers and NGOs, who invited producers to sell their products to them once a week (^{Schwentesius et al., 2013}). The network has the organizational structure shown in Figure 2.

Source: authors’ elaboration based on information by ^{Schwentesius et al. (2013)}.

Figure 2 Organizational structure of the REDAC. 

Among the main objectives of the network, according to its bylaws, the following are included: promoting the reconversion of conventional and natural products to organic, and the development and adaptation of alternative eco-technologies, decreasing the dependency on elements outside the system; advising in matters of CP; connecting and promoting the different tianguis and organic markets in Mexico, strengthening the local and fair trade; performing diagnostic studies of economic, technological and social type; participating in academic, scientific and outreach events at the national and international level; promoting training activities through courses, workshops, conferences and other media; and celebrating the contracts and executing the acts that are relative and related to social aims; and acquiring the personal and real estate property for the branches and services of the Association, in addition to participating actively in the design and formulation of public policies related to the local production of organic products (^{Schwentesius et al., 2013}).

The REDAC also has the specific goal of improving the land through organic agriculture and the participants in the markets that are part of the network, taking into account the concept of sustainability in which they include ecological, economic, sociocultural, and health factors (^{Schwentesius et al., 2013}).

Currently, the network has a total of 21 tianguis and organic markets in 15 states throughout the Mexican Republic.

Method and approach of the study

Any time the concept of sustainability is approached, a multi-criteria approach and the establishment ordinal measurement scales and univariate analysis methods must be carried out (^{Rendón, 2004}). This study is not the exception, since it considers the economic, ecological and sociocultural criteria in measuring the sustainability of small-scale producers, and it uses scales that indicate the degree of importance of certain factors for production, producers, etc. In addition, these scales help classify the degree of sustainability of certain indicators. Regarding univariate analysis, frequency distributions are done through graphs, central tendency measures, and some dispersion measures.

Reach and design of the study

It is a non-experimental transversal study, for the variables were not manipulated and data collection took place in a single moment in time. The research has three reaches; the first is that it is a descriptive study, since it shows the characteristics and circumstances of small-scale producers of the organic sector that have decided to join the tianguis or organic markets of the REDAC. In addition it is a study of correlational reach, since it associates variables which in this case are producers towards a pattern, which is the integration to tianguis or organic markets and for a population group which are the small-scale producers of the markets that make up the REDAC. Likewise, it is a study of explicative reach because it establishes causes, which for this case are that the integration of producers to these markets provides them sustainability in the economic, ecological and sociocultural aspect.

Collection instrument

The information was collected with primary sources obtained through the application of surveys to actors who participate in the organic sector at the local level; that is, producing and trading at a small scale and inside their localities. Therefore, the target population was divided into two groups: 1) producers who are part of the street or organic markets belonging to the REDAC; and 2) coordinators of these tianguis and markets.

Two questionnaires were elaborated, one structured and directed at producers and one semi-structured questionnaire for the coordinators. They were both applied to a small sample as pilot questionnaires, with the aim of testing their pertinence and efficacy both in matters of application and in results. Then, errors were corrected and some response options were modified to then obtain the definitive instrument.

The questionnaires were applied personally and before beginning with the responses, it was mentioned to producers that their responses were for academic aims and the personal data anonymous.

For the case of the producers, the questionnaire included 58 questions divided in four sections: a) identification of producers; b) production and commercialization; c) certification; and d) organic production. In addition, the perspective about the economic, ecological and sociocultural sustainability obtained by producers when participating in tianguis or organic markets was considered.

A semi-structured interview was applied to the coordinators, which included 32 questions about the constitution, initiative, functioning, location, organization and integration to define the situation of the tianguis or organic market within a descriptive context.

Unit of analysis

The REDAC has 21 tianguis and organic markets in 15 states throughout the Mexican Republic. However, due to the size of the terrain, the time and the estimation of the resources necessary to carry out the application of the questionnaires, it was decided to select nearby tianguis and markets with some similarities and ease in terms of access to information.

Therefore, the following eight tianguis and organic markets were selected.

Selection of the target population and size of the sample

The target population is producers and coordinators of the street and organic markets shown in Figure 3. Application of the questionnaire was carried out with the highest number of producers found in the tianguis and markets at the moment of performing the visit and, regarding the coordinators, eight were interviewed, one in each tianguis (however, there are tianguis where there is more than one coordinator).

Source: authors’ elaboration.

Figure 3 Tianguis and organic markets surveyed (location and schedule). 

Application of the collection instrument

The data were collected in diverse moments between August 2014 and December 2015. Eight states were visited in the Mexican Republic: Estado de México, Oaxaca, Puebla, Tlaxcala and Veracruz, applying a total of 69 questionnaires to producers and eight semi-structured interviews to coordinators as shown in Table 3.

Database design and information capture

The survey was captured in the Google Drive application, which is a tool to store, process and share documents. Later, the information obtained was exported to a database designed in the Microsoft Office Excel software, to carry out the correlation and analysis of the data.

Information analysis

The third phase is about the univariate analysis of the information that was obtained through the survey application. However, this is shown in the next section as results because the way in which it was developed is primarily descriptive, graphic and of correlations in spheres such as: producer’s general data; production, costs, income and earnings; commercialization; organic certification. This phase also includes the evaluation of sustainability that is shown next.

Profile and situation of small-scale producers from REDAC tianguis and organic markets

In total, 52 questionnaires were applied and the information obtained in this regard was the following.

Identification of the producer

The average age of the people who participated in the tianguis and organic markets is 44 years; 58% of the survey respondents are men and 42 % are women; 50 % are married and 71 % mentioned they have children. Only 13 % belongs to an ethnic group; 85% owns a house and the rest pay a monthly rent that goes from $1,500 pesos (minimum) to $4200 pesos (maximum).

Regarding schooling, 52 % has university studies, 17 % secondary, 13 % graduate studies, 6 % high school, 12 % primary school (not finished in all cases).

Production and commercialization

Of producers, 84 % are devoted to the production and commercialization of organic products. Of the total of people surveyed, 31 indicated that they entered the tianguis or market through a request where they described their products, production methods and suppliers (in case of having them); later, a visit was performed to the production area and there was a decision made. Six people indicated that their entry to the tianguis was by invitation from the street market. Two people indicated that their entry to the tianguis or market was through some association and the rest didn’t specify how they entered the street market.

Of them, 48 % receives technical assistance from their own tianguis (13 %) and 37 % through another means. The people mentioned that technical advice has taught them new production methods and pest prevention, it helps them to improve the organization, improve the productive process, improve soil nutrition, decrease the production costs, and reduce losses.

Of them, 87 % sells their products in another place; 48 % of this percentage sells in other tianguis or organic markets, 13 % in their locality, 6 % in markets or conventional stores, 6 % in fairs, expos and bazaars, and the rest (37) in other places. The reasons that the producers mentioned as to why they decided to sell their products in other places are:

Only 19 % belongs to some organized group of organic producers; the groups mentioned were:

They decided to join because belonging to one of these organizations helps promote organic production, generates learning, credibility, and there is better communication between the government and the producers. In addition, there is greater participation in events promoting organic products and resources can be obtained.

The average hours worked per week is 26.22; those who devote most hours to organic production work 70 hours and those who devote less, two hours (three people did not reply).

Of them, 79 % have people who help them to produce or harvest. The average number of people employed is 2.92 per producer; however, the highest number of employees per producer is 10, while there are 10 people who do not employ anyone. Of these people, 54 % are family members and the average hours they help to work is 7.38 hours; those who get helped most reported 70 hours per worker, but the hours worked depend on the time of the year and the crop. Of the producers, 48 % reported that they pay employees from 0 to 500 pesos weekly; 21 %, 501 to 1000 pesos; and 8 %, 1501 to 2000 pesos.

Organic certification

Of the survey respondents, 69 % have some type of organic certification; 7 % do not and 17 % are in process of certification (generally it is participative certification; only one person mentioned that he had both, participative and by agency, the agency used is CERTIMEX).

Of the 52 people surveyed, three did not respond, while 13 mentioned that it doesn’t cost them anything; the average that the 36 remaining people pay for their (annual) certification is $387.77. Of them, 81 % mentioned that having the organic certification influences positively the sale of their products and 73 % indicated that the use of a seal would also be beneficial to increase their sales since it generates greater trust in the consumer.

In terms of their weekly income, producers reported the following:

Of them, 58 % mentions they receive income from activities other than organic production.

Most of the producers consider that organic production is profitable; they mention that in addition to the increase they obtain in income, they also supply themselves and consume in a healthier manner. They sell all they produce, their production does not require many expenses and people seek organic products, since they are of higher quality and healthier. However, not all the producers consider that this production system is profitable. One of the main causes of this is the lack of market.

Of producers, 81 % consider that the payment they receive over the sale of their products is just since it is they who set the price, sell quality and people pay for it; in addition, the product goes straight to the consumer, which allows them to recover the production costs, since there are no intermediaries. The investment is low, they do what they like and, at the same time, they generate profits.