Advertising as a core component of contemporary culture

As a field of research, advertising poses many challenges given the inherent complexities that derive from its essentially economic purpose, and the fact that it has, in consequence, assumed increasing social, cultural and institutional importance (^{Eguizábal, 2007}; ^{Caro, 2007}).

Since its conception towards the end of the 19th century as a mediating instrument in the relations between producers and consumers, advertising has evolved to assume a range of new roles. On the one hand, these are rooted in the transformational processes that have occurred in the systems of production, distribution and the marketing of goods and services, as well as improved communication technologies; but they are also a product of the sociocultural development stimulated by these changes, in which advertising itself has played a significant part (^{Henry, 1963}; ^{Douglas & Isherwood, 1978}; ^{Jhally, 1987}; ^{Lipovetsky, 2007}).

As well as becoming a social institution, with its resultant influence on socialization processes and system cohesion (^{Williams, 1999}; ^{Ibáñez, 1989}), advertising has become an agent of demand creation and stimulation, a tool for brand building and positioning, and an inherent component of new organizational and institutional imagery. Now that the logic of advertising has permeated practically every aspect of our social lives, it has become the dominant language and a leading actor in the public arena (^{Mattelart, 1989}; ^{Zunzunegui, 1985}, quoted in ^{Caro, 2007}).

In view of these factors, advertising is recognized today as a keystone of modern culture, and a core element in the shaping of consumer lifestyles and consumer society. It has performed this same role in the transformational journey that manufacturers have embarked upon, in order to cast themselves, through their brands and products, as immaterial and intangible (semiotic) entities, purveyors and generators of worldviews, identities, values, expectations and cultural meanings (^{McCracken, 1986}; ^{Bauman, 2002}; ^{Hellin, 2007}).

Accordingly, while advertising helps to sustain market competition, it does so through the deployment of brand imagery, i.e., worlds of meaning that transcend, expand, redefine, differentiate and add value to social objects, irrespective of their material properties, and without being anchored solely in the product (^{Caro, 2007}; ^{Semprini, 1995}; ^{Fraenkel & Legris-Desportes, 1999}); these social objects are thus recast as a "cultural model" (^{Williams, 1999, p. 422}).

^{Luther, McMahan & Shoop (2008)} stated some time ago that advertising has been recognized by the specialized literature as not only “mirroring” culture, but also having the capacity to influence it. According to ^{Schudson (1986)}, this affects behaviors and values by creating a consumption-based ideology and by providing individuals and communities with behavioral norms (see ^{Kang, 1997}; ^{Frith, Shaw & Cheng, 2005}; and ^{Pollay, 1986}, quoted by ^{Luther et al., 2008}).

It is at the cultural level that advertising exerts its influence (^{Canevacci, 2001}) by means of the representations it engenders. These representations encapsulate and anticipate new social meanings, which are then "consumed" by audiences, regardless of any act of purchase (^{Caro, 2007}). This process is one of cultural learning, acquired through advertising and consumption (^{Trindade & Ribeiro, 2009, p. 207}).

Consistent with the research of ^{Williams (1999)} and ^{Baudrillard (1988)} among others, our own understanding of advertising is that it represents one of the most important means of contemporary social communication, as well as the most authentic product and clearest expression of consumer society (^{Rodríguez & Mora, 2002, p. 21}).

With that in mind, we recognize the value of advertising research, which has thus been suggested as an instrument by which to gain a better understanding of society, given that advertising not only reflects the cultural mood of the time, but also helps to shape it. In accordance with ^{González Martín (1982)}, we note that advertising is the conduit through which society is outwardly expressed, whilst at once “consuming” its own image.

Advertising and cultural change in Chile

From 1975, and following the coup d'état of 1973, Chile witnessed an explosive growth in advertising as a consequence of the establishment of the free-market economic model (^{Vergara, 2003}). Its expansion was to have major economic and sociocultural implications, by influencing the way in which Chilean society's expectations and desires began to be represented and promoted (^{Catalán & Mella, 1982}). Up to that point, the communicational role of advertising had been constructed around a strong State, acting as both director and coordinator of change; this, however, gave way to another that was centered on the consumer and his or her interests, thus laying the foundations of a new culture (^{Larraín, 2001}).

Two factors would reinforce the centrality of consumption in the 1990's: firstly the return of democracy (1990), which signified the recovery of public freedoms and certain adjustments to the economic model, thus facilitating its expansion, consolidation; and secondly, rapid economic growth, which doubled the population's per-capita income. Against this backdrop, 1997 (the first year of analysis) marked an end to what was regarded as the "golden decade" of the Chilean economy, characterized by sustained GDP growth (with an annual average of 8%), and ushering in a new era of political, economic and sociocultural openness to the world (though it would also culminate in the "Asian crisis” of 1999. ^{Rodríguez, 2002}), It was also the phase during which Chile came to be regarded as a "model country in the region" (^{Siavelis, 2009}; ^{Drake & Jaksic, 1999}; ^{Subercaseaux, 1996}).

These events ensured that consumption would occupy a prominent role in people's daily lives, as a focal point of social relations (^{Tironi, 1999}), to the extent that it became the physical crystallization of individual identity and a new material anchor for social ties (^{Siavelis, 2009}; ^{Drake & Jaksic, 1999}; ^{Subercaseaux, 1996}). The importance of consumption was reflected by a rapid increase in the number of credit cards issued, which increased fourfold over the period, soaring from one million 350 thousand in 1993 to more than seven million in 2000, as well as the growing impact of shopping malls, which received twice the number of visitors over a four-year period: 91 million in 1996 to almost 180 million in 2000 (^{United Nations Development Programme, UNDP, 2002}).

Meanwhile, advertising expenditure also doubled between 1990 and 1997, reaching a total of 1.1 billion dollars, a record figure that was not exceeded until 10 years later (^{Asociación Chilena de Publicidad - Chilean Advertising Agents Association, ACHAP, 2012}). Advertising thus began to assume a leading role in the media, a step towards becoming a key referent in the social construction of reality and in the establishment of social identities (^{Fontaine, 2001}; ^{Moulian, 1997}).

Once the Asian crisis had subsided, the country again returned to growth rates of more than 4%, except during the sub-prime crisis that occurred between 2008 and 2009, and whose effects lasted until 2013. On the other hand, following a period of instability between 1999 and 2003, advertising expenditure returned to growth rates higher than 4% up to 2007, before falling sharply in 2008 and 2009. Nevertheless, between 2010 and 2011, growth in expenditure recovered to levels of more than 10%, before reaching an all-time high of 1.4 billion dollars in 2013, the second year chosen for our analysis (^{ACHAP, 2013}). A further important factor to be considered in the context of our research was the rapid expansion in the number of credit cards issued by the major department stores over the last 10 years. By the beginning of 2009, the figure had reached almost 20 million, far exceeding the total population of Chile, although it dropped again in 2013 to around 14.7 million (^{Retail Financiero, 2013}).

The retail sector in Chile

Retail is understood to refer to the collection of companies specializing in the commercialization of mass-market products, oriented towards the end consumer. The sector mainly comprises large stores whose primary activity involves the distribution and sale of retail goods. It can be divided into four categories: supermarkets, department stores, drugstores and DIY stores.

The retail sector has particular relevance in Chile if we keep in mind its 20% GDP contribution, with an annual growth rate of 11% between 2003 and 2007; the country was also witness to the extensive consolidation of ownership during the same period. As regards the country’s major department stores (the primary focus of this article), Falabella, Ripley and Paris together account for 80% of market share. In 2011, advertising expenditure for the retail sector represented 16% of the total investment in traditional media, with Falabella accounting for the largest share among the three department stores.

More women, more youths, and closer proximity to the consumer

Comparing the first and second samples, we observed, on the one hand, a notable increase in the proportion of women portraying characters in retail ads (Table 1); on the other hand, there was also a trend towards greater representation of youths (Table 2). The proportion of adults and young adults dropped significantly in 2013 compared to 1997, and there was an increase in the characters classified as “youths”. Nevertheless, “young adults” continued to rank highest in terms of representation.

Table 1 Gender of characters according to sample 

Source: Own elaboration

Table 2 Age group of characters according to sample 

Source: Own elaboration

We also noted a substantial reduction in the number of full-body images (64.4% in 1997 versus 25.3% in 2013) and an increase in the use of close-ups and "American shots", a type of framing used in almost half the images published (Table 3). These findings are consistent with our proposed notion of an advertising style that seeks new ways of attracting consumers.

Table 3 Profile of characters according to sample 

Source: Own elaboration

To sum up, we first see more individuals portrayed in retail ads; most tend to be women, who are younger and cast to reflect more closely the target audiences of 1997.

Increase in number of middle-class characters and continuing use of the caucasian phenotype

In keeping with the predetermined categories, between 1997 and 2013, the number of characters classified as “high-class” dropped significantly (less than 5%), whilst the number of "middle class" characters increased. Despite this, the number of “upper-middle” characters remained prevalent, at levels of around 56% (Table 4).

Table 4 Social class of characters according to sample 

Source: Own elaboration

As Table 5 indicates, the physical shape and build of characters now tends to be primarily "normal" (65%), rather than those categorized as having "stylized bodies" (model or sporty types). Here we can see perhaps a further example of the way in which advertising attempts to bring characters closer to the population at large. There is also perhaps a strategic aim here, considering the increasing purchasing power of the middle and lower classes.

Table 5 Body build of characters according to sample 

Source: Own elaboration

Despite the variations described above, there is one aspect that remained constant throughout the 16-year period: the Caucasian prototype of characters featured in the advertising images. Tables 6 and 7 reaffirm that hair color has maintained similar levels to those in 1997: dark hair continues to be under represented, despite being the most common hair type among Chileans overall. Similarly, there is an overwhelming predominance of white-skinned models; indeed there is even a slight increase.

Table 6 Hair color of characters according to sample 

Source: Own elaboration

Table 7 Skin color of characters according to sample 

Source: Own elaboration

Characters in less formal clothing

Although fully clothed characters remain predominant (falling from 75.1% to 65.3%, Table 8), there is an increase in the number of characters wearing "partial clothing", generally consisting of lightweight clothing, with shoulders and legs visible (rising to 20.8%). We did not observe any significant increase in the "suggestive clothing" or "full nudity" category. Consistent with this classification and with regard to the type of clothing worn, Table 9 shows an increase in the number of casually dressed characters, rising to 59.1%, but the number of formally dressed characters fell from 23.2% to 11.3%.

Table 8 Clothing/ nudity of characters according to sample 

Source: Own elaboration

Table 9 Clothing type of characters according to the sample 

Source: Own elaboration

These results are consistent with those observed in other areas, such as the field of social communications, for example, where an increasing informality is clearly evident, extending across social networks and including representations in the more traditional media. Today, language and style is significantly more relaxed, very different from the formal and strict styles that were still visible by the end of the 90s.

Social role of characters, activity and setting

When analyzing the function or social roles performed by characters in the ad’s contextual recreations (Table 10), it is worth noting that the proportion of characters occupying a family role within the group (around 16%) remains constant during the period under analysis. This includes all characters portraying the role of father, mother, son and daughter, etc. This is interesting, given the general acceptance (supported by substantial statistical evidence) that the make-up and types of families in Chile have become markedly diversified over the last 20 years. This can be explained by several factors, not least by the Chilean law that permits divorce, and that was enacted as recently as 2004. It is perhaps the case, therefore, that the internal make-up of families represented within this percentage has changed (for example, from the nuclear to the single-parent family) but the impact on retail ads has remained constant.

Table 10 Social role of characters according to sample 

Source: Own elaboration

In terms of the images, there has been a considerable drop in the number of anonymous consumer representations (dropping from 54.4% to 16.6%); this has occurred simultaneously with an increase in the presence of celebrities ("faces") and experts (rising from 6.7% to 29.4%). One possible explanation for this trend is the growing mediatization of Chilean society, and, as a consequence, the increasingly prominent role of well-known personalities in the media. The weakened credibility of traditional institutions in Chile combined with a social environment characterized by suspicion towards strangers may explain to some degree the increasing level of credibility and familiarity afforded celebrities from both consumers and key opinion leaders. In Table 10, we can see a substantial increase in the number of characters not engaged in a specific social role ("Unidentified), i.e., characters simply posing.

With regard to the activities performed by characters (Table 11), the most significant change can be observed in fun-related activities (rising from 11.2% to 25.3%). This increase may be a reflection of lifestyle changes, and of the desires and aspirations of today's consumers, who tend to be more hedonistic. If the focus of advertising in 1997 was to provide consumers with access to a whole range of products, attention has shifted in 2013 from the "object" of consumption as the main aim of brand imagery towards the “quality of life” as the primary attribute.

Table 11 Activities of characters according to sample 

Source: Own elaboration