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Humans have used plants since before recorded history, resulting in diverse knowledge about plant resources. This explains why some species have become fundamental for the global economy. However, many wild plants of economic importance lack sufficient information on their distribution, habitat conservation status, population dynamics, ecological requirements, and traditional use practices (Gómez-Pompa 1993, Caballero et al. 1998, Schmidt & Cheng 2017).
Asteraceae is a botanical family with over 25,000 described species and is one of the most diverse angiosperm family (Anderberg et al. 2007). It is of great economic and ecological importance, but its high species diversity does not necessarily translate into a proportional number of species directly useful to humans (Simpson 2009, Rolnik & Olas 2021, Palazzesi et al. 2022). Approximately one in five genera of Asteraceae have documented plant species used (Molina-Venegas et al. 2021, Palazzesi et al. 2022). The FAO (2024) lists only six globally significant crops within Asteraceae: i) Cynara scolymus (artichoke), ii) Lactuca sativa (lettuce), iii) Cichorium intybus (chicory root), iv) Carthamus tinctorius (safflower), v) Helianthus annuus (sunflower seed), and vi) Tanacetum cinerariifolium (pyrethrum), the latter being widely used as an insecticide.
The family is best known for its ornamental plants, such as edelweiss (Leontopodium nivale), Senecio spp., daisies (Leucanthemum, Arctotis and other genera), marigolds (Tagetes, Calendula, and others), and chrysanthemums (Chrysanthemum indicum). It also includes notorious weeds like thistles (Cirsium spp. and Sphagneticola spp.), dandelions (Taraxacum campylodes and T. erythrospermum), and ragweed (primarily Ambrosia spp.) (Schmidt & Cheng 2017, Palazzesi et al. 2022). Nevertheless, at a local level, hundreds of Asteraceae species are used as herbal medicines, dyes, ornamental plants, flavorings, and more (e.g., Heinrich et al. 1998, Narváez-Elizondo et al. 2020, Cilia-López et al. 2021, Imtiyaz-Ali & Venkatesalu 2022, Kachura & Harris 2022, Bouteche et al. 2024, Mehrzadeh et al. 2024, Rajlaxmi 2024).
The genus Dahlia (Asteraceae) comprises 41 species and is native to the Americas. Mexico represents the center of diversification with 38 species endemics (Carrasco-Ortiz et al. 2019, Sánchez-Chávez et al. 2019, Reyes-Santiago et al. 2024). This genus includes herbs, subshrubs, and epiphytic lianas, usually with fistulous internodes or when woody variously chambered (Figure 1A), with tuberous, fascicled roots developing from a short rhizome (Figure 1B). Their inflorescence is a heterogamous capitulum (Figure 1C) composed of two series of dimorphic phyllaries, eight ray florets (white, yellow, orange, red, or purple; Figure 1D), and 15-150 disc florets (yellow, red, or purple; Figure 1E-F) (Castro-Castro et al. 2012).
Figure 1 Morphology of Dahlia with particular emphasis on the parts used. A, fistulose internodes of Dahlia imperialis. B, tuberous root of Dahlia pugana. C, inflorescence of Dahlia coccinea. D, ray floret. E, Capitulum with disc florets. F, disc floret.
In ornamental horticulture, dahlias are globally recognized for their diverse inflorescence forms, sizes, and colors. Since their initial description in 1791, genetic modifications in these plants have produced over 63,000 cultivated varieties (TRHS 2023). The cultivars originate from the nothospecies Dahlia x hortensis (Hansen & Hjerting 1996, Puente Miranda 2024) derived from crosses among D. coccinea, D. sorensenii, D. merckii, and D. imperialis (Hansen & Hjerting 1996, Gatt et al. 2000a, b).
Dahlia species are also currently used in the food industry. Their tuberous roots yield inulin, which serves as a thickener, emulsifier, and gelling agent, as well as a substitute for fats and added sugars (Santana et al. 2016). In the pharmaceutical sector, inulin derived from Dahlia is employed as an excipient in medications (Hauly & Moscatto 2002, Madrigal & Sangronis 2007).
Dahlia species, commonly known as "dalias" or "jícamas" (in Spanish), hold a distinguished position as one of the most culturally important plants in Mexico. They were officially designated as the National Flower in 1963 by presidential decree of Adolfo López Mateos, and this honor encompasses all Dahlia species and varieties (Secretaría de Agricultura y Ganadería 1963, Mera-Ovando & Bye 2006). Their usage dates back to pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica, where the Aztec Empire called them "acocoxóchitl" or "acocotli" (hollow stems containing water). Historical records indicate different applications, such as ornamental, culinary, and medicinal uses, particularly as remedies for chronic cough and colic, and as diuretic or diaphoretics (substances that induce sweating) (Hernández 1945, Mera-Ovando & Bye 2006, Mejía Muñoz et al. 2010).
Given the longstanding utility of dahlia since pre-Hispanic times, it is likely that these uses have persisted through generations. However, despite its multifaceted historical uses, a comprehensive record of this traditional knowledge does not exist today. This study aims to characterize the uses and geographic distribution of the knowledge of Dahlia species in Mexico through a literature review. Therefore, the evaluation primarily adopts a genus-level approach; the species-specific information is included but not exhaustive.
Materials and methods
This analysis incorporates all ethnobotanical studies published between 1930 to December 2024 on Dahlia via electronic search using Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, Google Scholar and publications in peer-reviewed scientific journals, ethnobotanical textbooks and further scientific data network SEINet (Gilbert et al. 2019), including the ancient writings of the Florentine Codex (1540) and Francisco Hernández (1571-1576). The search keywords included: botany, dahlia, dalia, ethnobotany, medicinal use, conservation, phytochemistry, acocoxochitl and pharmacology of Dahlia. Unpublished studies have been excluded from this analysis. However, our sources included bachelor, master, and doctoral theses and were classified as gray literature (Frandsen 2009, Campos et al. 2016). The criteria used to select these studies following aspects like inclusion of field work, clear methodology, indication of sources used, herbarium specimens or photographs of the specimens. All studies via electronic search, textbooks and theses that mention the ethnobotanical use of any Dahlia species in Mexico were included. Studies that only mentioned the genus without data on use were excluded. Additionally, we examined usage records and collection locations of specimens housed in two major herbaria: IBUG (Herbario Luz María Villarreal de Puga, Universidad de Guadalajara) and MEXU (Herbario Nacional, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México) (acronyms according to Index Herbariorum, Thiers 2025). The final data collected were then evaluated and compared, and conclusions were drawn accordingly.
Results
A total of 132 studies were evaluated, of which 58 met the inclusion criteria for this research. The final compilation comprised 24 peer-reviewed articles, 23 academic theses, eight ethnobotanical reference books, and three traditional Mexican cookbooks. Additionally, we included information from 62 herbarium specimens (IBUG and MEXU), incorporating data from SEINet.
The records document traditional uses of at less 11 Dahlia species (Dahlia australis, D. coccinea, D. imperialis, D. merckii, D. pteropoda, D. pugana, D. sherffii, D. sorensenii, D. tamaulipana, D. tenuicaulis, D. wixarika; Figure 2) and the hybrid D. pinnata across 19 Mexican states. Figure 3 shows the proportion of literature sources documented per state. Dahlia coccinea was the species with the most reported uses: ornamental, food uses, natural dye applications, medicinal uses, and cultural uses. The states of Durango and Oaxaca recorded the most Dahlia species, and Oaxaca recorded also the highest number of distinct use reports (Table 1, for more detail see Appendix 1). The ornamental category was the most frequently documented. Notably, the hybrid derived specie D. pinnata, identified by their multiple series of ray florets, was reported almost solely for ornamental use. Six other uses were listed: food, natural dye applications, medicinal, ceremonial practices, forage, and cultural (Figure 4). Roots comprised the most consumed plant structure, with both medicinal and nutritional applications reported in eight states (Figure 1B).
Figure 2 Dahlia species with ethnobotanical uses. A, Dahlia pugana. B, Dahlia sherffii. C, Dahlia australis. D, Dahlia coccinea. E, Dahlia imperialis. F, Dahlia merckii. G, Dahlia sorensenii. H, Dahlia pinnata.
Table 1 Main uses of Dahlia species. * Information obtained from herbarium specimens labels.
| State | Specie | Common name | Uses | Used part | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mexico City* | Dahlia sp. | Dalia | Ornamental | Azcarraga Rosette 2004 | |
| Chiapas* | Dahlia coccinea, D. imperialis, D. pinnata | Dalia | Ornamental, medicinal, dye | Inflorescence, stem | Gutiérrez Miranda 2003, Cancino Escobar 2020, Farrera Sarmiento et al. 2020, López Flores 2020 |
| Chihuahua* | D. coccinea, D. shgrffii | Amájui Jícama | Food, dye | Root | Camou Guerrero 2008, Král 2014 |
| Durango* | D. coccinea, D. pugana, D. sherffii, D. wixarika | silvestre, flor de cabeza de guacamaya | Food, dye, medicinal | Root | Král 2014, Narváez-Elizondo et al. 2020 |
| State of Mexico * | D. coccinea | Dalia, catarina | Ornamental, dye | Inflorescence | Gaytán-Ávila et al. 2001, Franco-Maass et al. 2019 |
| Morelos | Dahlia sp. | Dalia | Ornamental | Gutiérrez García 2020 | |
| Guanajuato* | D. coccinea, D. merckii, D. pinnata | Mirasol | Ornamental, forage | Stem, leaf, inflorescence | Monroy Vázquez 2005 |
| Guerrero | D. coccinea | Dalia | Ornamental, religion | Inflorescence | González Guinea 2008 |
| Hidalgo* | D. coccinea, D. merckii, D. pinnata | Dalia, girasol, ninfa | Ornamental | Nava Hernández 2009, Reyes Cobarrubias 2012, Carrasco Hernández 2011, Pérez Escandón et al. 2022 | |
| Jalisco* | D. coccinea, D. tenuicaulis, Dahlia sp. | Dalia, jícama de rosa, charahuasca | Ornamental, food, medicinal | Root | Gamboa Ruiz 1999, Camberos Sánchez 2002 |
| Michoacán* | D. coccinea, D. sorensenii | Chalihuesca o xicamoxochitl | Medicinal, cultural | Inflorescence, root | Carmona Romaní 2005 |
| Nayarit | D. coccinea | Ornamental | Ibarra Sánchez 1996 | ||
| Oaxaca* | D. australis, D. coccinea, D. pteropoda, D. pinnata, D. tenuicaulis | Dalia, flor de gallo, hiaj de'lo, yarg yurshe | Ornamental, food, dye, medicinal | Inflorescence, leaf, root | Cedano González 1989, Reyes-Santiago et al. 2004, Naranjo Cruz 2012, Lara-Cortés 2014, Aparicio Aparicio et al. 2021 |
| Puebla* | Dahlia sp. | Juarigo, mira sol cimarrón | Ornamental, dye | Inflorescence | Paredes-Flores et al. 2007, Arroyo Ortiz 2014 |
| Querétaro* | D. coccinea, D. pinnata | Dalia | Ornamental | ||
| San Luis Potosí* | D. coccinea, D. merckii | Jícama | Ornamental, food | Inflorescence, root | |
| Tamaulipas* | D. coccinea, D. tamaulipana, D. pinnata | Dalia, dalia sencilla, dalia silvestre | Ornamental, food | Root | Medellín-Morales et al. 2017 |
| Tlaxcala* | D. coccinea | Medicinal | |||
| Veracruz* | D. coccinea, D. tenuicaulis, D. imperialis, D. pinnata | Xicamitli, xicamaxochitl, camili, mirasol, flor de nochebuena | Ornamental, medicinal, dye | Inflorescence, root | Trueba Sánchez 2009, Navarro Perez & Avendaño 2002, Saavedra Ramírez 2021 |
Food uses. In Mexico, traditional culinary applications of Dahlia have been documented in the states of Chihuahua, Durango, Jalisco, Oaxaca, San Luis Potosí, and Tamaulipas. The tuberous roots are consumed both raw and cooked, serving as a carbohydrate source. More recently, contemporary culinary applications have emerged, featuring innovative preparations using both vegetative and reproductive plant structures. Notable modern uses include: incorporating ray florets fresh into salads or using them for herbal infusions, and processing the roots into purees or milling them into specialty flour.
Natural dye applications. The ray florets of Dahlia are used to extract natural dyes for coloring textiles and other materials. In the municipality of Soledad Atzompa, Veracruz, yellow and orange dyes are extracted from both cultivated and wild plants for textile dyeing. In the State of Mexico, the Mazahua community of Santa Rosa de Lima obtains yellow, orange, and bronze dyes exclusively from wild plants, and they have no formal cultivation practices. The residents of San Andrés Chicahuaxtla (Putla municipality), Oaxaca, refer to dahlias as flor de gallo ("rooster flower"), and children use them as coloring material. In Chihuahua, the Rarámuri community of Cuiteco (Urique municipality) extract dyes from these plants, although their specific uses remain undocumented. In the locality of Santa Rita Tlahuapan, Puebla, the extraction of red, orange, and yellow dyes has been recorded by literature and herbarium specimens. The herbarium records confirmed the existence of this practice in Durango, although the exact details are not documented. In Chiapas, this practice has been recorded by ethnobotanical books, but specific details of the extraction are not documented.
Medicinal uses. Plants play a significant role in traditional Mexican medicine, and dahlia roots are a prime example. They are used to treat various illnesses, including kidney discomfort, skin conditions, and cough. For example, in Jalisco, fresh roots are used by La Manzanilla de la Paz people to alleviate kidney problems, and in Mezquitic, boiled roots are used for similar purposes. They are also believed to reduce inflammation by applying poultice on affected areas. In Zacapu, Michoacán, the roots are consumed to quench thirst. In Oaxaca, tuberous root poultices are applied to treat skin conditions. In Chiapas, inflorescence infusions are prepared to relieve coughs, and the sap extracted from hollow stems is used to treat kidney complaints. Although Dahlia is also described as having medicinal applications in Durango, Tlaxcala, and Veracruz the specific parts of the plant used and their associated illnesses remain undocumented.
Ornamental uses. The most popular use of dahlias is as ornamentals. This category was documented in 15 Mexican states. Ornamental varieties are widely cultivated in gardens for their vibrant and diverse flowers. However, they are less frequently used in floral arrangements.
Religious uses. In Guerrero, Dahlia coccinea decorate graves during Día de Muertos festivities, in October and November.
Forage use. Dahlia merckii is used in Guanajuato as forage for bovine, equine, caprine, and ovine livestock.
Other uses in Mexican culture. The Mazahua ethnicity of Michoacán features a distinctive eight-petaled floral motif known as the Rosachi in their embroideries. Carmona Romaní (2005), in her work on traditional Mazahua embroidery, interprets this Rosachi as a representation of the wild dahlias that grow in the region during the summer. This design is commonly embroidered on traditional cotton skirts (enaguas de manta), as well as on ceremonial bags or satchel handmade (morrales), wool coats (gabanes), and quilts (colchas).
Discussion
The Florentine Codex (1540), compiled by Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún, and the work of the Spanish physician Francisco Hernández (1945) are the most significant sources on the pre-Hispanic use plants in Mexico (Heinrich et al. 1998). These texts contain the earliest records of dahlias, detailing ornamental and medicinal uses mainly in central Mexico. However, the genus Dahlia has a broader distribution, occurring wild in 26 Mexican states (Carrasco-Ortiz et al. 2019), of which 19 currently report diverse uses. Our analysis systematically classified seven distinct ethnobotanical uses in these 19 Mexican states.
As anticipated, the ornamental use was predominant, reflecting the global horticultural significance since their introduction to Europe in 1791 (Sorensen 1969, Janick 2013). In Mexico, the ornamental use of dahlias has persisted since pre-Hispanic times to the present day, although their cultivation remains largely limited to private gardens, with less large-scale expertise compared with Europe or the U.S.A. (Ciobanu et al. 2021). However, beyond this well documented role, medicinal and dye applications emerged as the second most frequently reported categories, revealing a deeper layer of traditional knowledge.
Plants play an essential role in traditional Mexican medicine. The use of Dahlia appears to form a potential corridor of traditional knowledge along western Mexico, with reports ranging from Durango to Chiapas through Jalisco, Michoacán, and Oaxaca. The conspicuous absence of data from Guerrero likely reflects a critical gap in documentation rather than a genuine lack of use of the plant, suggesting a potential area for future ethnographic fieldwork. In contrast, this medicinal application is notably less documented in eastern regions, with Veracruz being a singular exception. The tuberous roots of dahlias have been documented as possessing both nutritional and medicinal properties (Whitley 1985, Laguna-Cerda et al. 2004). The roots and leaves are used to treat skin conditions (herbarium specimens Chávez et al. s/n, and Solano et al. 438, IBUG). This is not surprising, since several other species in Asteraceae, such as Artemisia ludoviciana, Calea zacatechichi, Polymnia maculata, and Tithonia diversifolia, are traditionally used to treat topical inflammations, infected wounds, and bruises (Rungeler et al. 1998, Heinrich 2000, Chagas-Paula et al. 2012). Another traditional use of Dahlia is as an antitussive, a property documented from the 16th century to the present (Hernández 1945, Whitley 1985, Marzouk et al. 2016, Rodríguez-Chávez et al. 2017, Ruiz-Vásquez et al. 2018, López Flores 2020, Olennikov & Chirikova 2024). Dahlia also attributes diuretic, sudorific (sweat-inducing), and antispasmodic properties (Hernández 1945, Mera-Ovando & Bye 2006, Mejía Muñoz et al. 2010). However, these uses remain underreported and lack extensive verification in modern scientific literature.
A similarly heterogeneous pattern characterizes the use of Dahlia as a natural dye. Its scattered distribution across the country is more plausibly explained by irregular ethnographic recording than by the actual absence of the practice, though variations in local dye-extraction techniques may also influence its visibility and persistence. The ray flowers are used to produce dyes for coloring textiles and other materials (Camou Guerrero 2008, Gaytán-Ávila et al. 2001, Trueba Sánchez 2009, Mishra et al. 2012, Král 2014, Lira et al. 2016, Franco-Maass et al. 2019, Aparicio et al. 2021). However, the collection of flowers for dye production is becoming less common. Nevertheless, Franco-Maass et al. (2019) report that this practice has led to a reduction in the size of some wild populations in the State of Mexico.
The food use of Dahlia demonstrates intriguing regional specialization. In the northern and western parts of its range (e.g., Chihuahua, Durango, Jalisco), the tuberous root is the primary part consumed. In contrast, Oaxaca showcases a more diverse culinary tradition, utilizing both the roots and the ray florets (Lara-Cortés et al. 2014). This geographical variation in edibility underscores how cultural preferences can shape the utilization of a different plant structure. In recent years, the use of edible flowers in Mexican cuisine has increased due to their aesthetic appeal and their ability to improve the visual presentation of dishes (Mulík & Ozuna 2020, Hernández-Epigmenio et al. 2022). The most popular species reported are Dahlia brevis, D. campanulata, D. coccinea, D. merckii, and D. x hortorum (Mulík & Ozuna 2020). Their flowers may be consumed fresh in salads, soups, and beverages, or dried for use in infusions, desserts, and seasonings (Kaisoon et al. 2012, Kumar et al. 2024). Recent studies have highlighted potential health benefits, including the presence of bioactive compounds such as anthocyanins, which have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiproliferative properties (Rivera Espejel et al. 2019, Pires et al. 2019).
Asteraceae include numerous plant species with significant pharmacological properties (e.g., Heinrich et al. 1998, Chagas-Paula et al. 2012, White et al. 2015, Ajao & Moteetee 2017, Cilia-López et al. 2021, Imtiyaz-Ali & Venkatesalu 2022, Cicio et al. 2023, Bouteche et al. 2024, Mehrzadeh et al. 2024). The tuberous roots of dahlias store carbohydrates such as inulin and other fructans (Whitley 1985, Santana et al. 2016, Jiménez Ruiz 2017, Puente Miranda 2024). These compounds are present in other species within Asteraceae, such as yacón (Smallanthus sonchifolius), chicory (Cichorium intybus), and Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus) (Bosscher 2009). Inulin is a prebiotic fiber known for its digestive benefits (Santana et al. 2016, Ciobanu et al. 2021). In addition, dahlia flowers contain butein, a polyphenol that inhibits enzyme protein tyrosine kinase, potentially offering protection against certain cancers and inflammatory diseases (Yang et al. 1998, Samoszuk et al. 2005, Semwal et al. 2015, Pires et al. 2018).
At the species level, Dahlia coccinea was identified as having the most reported uses. This finding aligns directly with its status as one of the most widely distributed wild species (Carrasco-Ortiz et al. 2019), supporting the ecological principle that widely available species often accumulate a greater diversity of cultural applications (Levis et al. 2024, Bolcato & Aplin 2025). A significant limitation encountered in this synthesis was the frequency of use reports identified only to the genus level (Dahlia sp.). This taxonomic imprecision obscures species-specific relationships and highlights a critical need for future research to delineate the exact roles of individual species within this culturally rich genus.
Compared to their ornamental, medicinal, and food uses, the use of dahlias as forage has been less documented. However, there is evidence that certain species may be used as livestock feed in some regions, such as Guanajuato (Monroy Vázquez 2005). This underexplored application presents potential for diversifying animal feed resources, particularly within sustainable agroecological systems.
While this study detailed the culturally significant representation of Dahlia in Mazahua embroidery (Carmona Romaní 2005), this is almost certainly not an isolated case. It serves as a compelling example of the plant role as a cultural motif, and it is highly probable that other Indigenous communities incorporate dahlias into their material culture and cosmovision. The documentation of these cultural uses remains a vast and largely untapped field of inquiry.
In conclusion, the ethnobotanical panorama of Dahlia in Mexico extends far beyond its ornamental value, encompassing a rich diversity of medicinal, alimentary, and artisanal uses (Figure 5). The geographic patterns revealed in this analysis, while insightful, are likely just a fragment of the total knowledge, greatly influenced by disparities in research effort. Future studies should prioritize filling these geographic and taxonomic gaps to fully appreciate and safeguard this invaluable biocultural heritage.
Figure 5 Ethnobotanical uses of Dahlia species. A, ceramic vessel paintings featuring designs resembling Dahlia flowers. B, production of ceramic tiles featuring Dahlia representations. C, embroidery of Mazahua ethnicity. D, natural dye applications (Arroyo Ortiz 2014). E, painting in a business depicting an eight-petaled flower. F, ornamental uses.
The limited accessibility of some literature, like academic theses, which are confined to institutional repositories with minimal global visibility, poses a major challenge for comprehensive ethnobotanical reviews. In this study, theses accounted for ca. 20 % of the sources consulted (23 works), almost matching the number of peer-reviewed articles (24 works). This aligns with Campos et al. (2016) assertion that gray literature (Frandsen 2009) repositories are vital primary sources for ethnobiology studies, particularly in biodiverse regions where traditional knowledge often exists only in these gray literature repositories. Although these sources can preserve valuable local knowledge unreported in indexed literature (e.g., dye techniques in Chihuahua), they vary widely in quality, methodological inconsistencies and lack of formal peer-review. This inherent variability underscores the necessity of applying rigorous inclusion and exclusion criteria to grey literature sources, as was done in this analysis. Our criteria prioritized works that provided verifiable ethnographic details, cited voucher specimens, and clearly described their data collection methods.
Finally, the information attached on herbarium specimens is valuable for studies of plant distribution, morphology, phenology, and genetics. In ethnobotanical research, data serve as irreplaceable chronological records, capturing precise moments in humanity's relationship with plants. Herbarium specimens are essential for understanding traditional plant uses. These pressed vouchers document more than morphology. Their labels often preserve vanishing practices, biocultural shifts, and geographic specificity (Nesbitt 2014, Swain & Chakraborty 2024). For dahlias, specimens provide tangible evidence of pre-industrial medicinal knowledge (e.g., skin treatments). This evidentiary gap becomes particularly critical for culturally significant taxa like Dahlia, where 97.5 % (n = 2,484) lack ethnobotanical annotations. The remaining 2.5 % of annotated specimens (n = 64) predominantly derive from three states (Oaxaca, Michoacán, and State of Mexico), reflecting geographic biases in ethnobotanical documentation.
Our findings highlight the ethnobotanical importance of Dahlia species as a multifunctional resource for ornamentation, gastronomy, traditional medicine, rituals, clothes, outfits, and crafts. However, unsustainable harvesting and lack of management practices threaten some applications. Further ethnobotanical research and documentation are crucial to promote sustainable use and preserve this traditional knowledge. The geographic patterns shown in this work are a fragment of the total knowledge. Future studies should prioritize filling these geographic and taxonomic gaps to fully appreciate and safeguard this invaluable biocultural heritage.
