Scielo RSS <![CDATA[Salud mental]]> http://www.scielo.org.mx/rss.php?pid=0185-332520100003&lang=es vol. 33 num. 3 lang. es <![CDATA[SciELO Logo]]> http://www.scielo.org.mx/img/en/fbpelogp.gif http://www.scielo.org.mx <![CDATA[<b>Estudio de costo-efectividad del tratamiento de la esquizofrenia en México</b>]]> http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0185-33252010000300001&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es Introduction Schizophrenia is a disorder that causes significant disability. In addition, its treatment is expensive because the increased prescription of atypical antipsychotics with associated high costs. In a recent 14-country study on disability associated with physical and mental conditions, active psychosis was ranked the third most disabling condition in general population, more than paraplegia and blindness. In the global burden of disease study, schizophrenia accounted for 1.1% of the total Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) and 2.8% of Years of lived with disability (YLDs). The economic cost of schizophrenia for society is also high. The study of the burden of schizophrenia for society, whether expressed in epidemiological or costs terms, is an insufficient basis for setting priorities for resources allocation. Thus, increasingly sophisticated economic models have been developed. Such is the case of cost-effectiveness studies, which show the relationship between resources used (costs) and benefit achieved (effectiveness) of an intervention compared with others. In Mexico, there is only one study that evaluated the cost-effectiveness of different antipsychotics to treat schizophrenia, but it was a specific approach (not generalized), and did not include psychological interventions. The present study is part of a World Health Organization's initiative labeled WHO-CHOICE: CHOosing Interventions that are Cost-Effective. WHO-CHOICE methodology involves the evaluation of interventions based on a generalized measure: DALYs, which allows carrying out several and important comparisons. The main objective was to determine the cost-effectiveness of different interventions for the treatment of schizophrenia in Mexican communitarian settings. Method Schizophrenia was modeled as a serious chronic disorder with a high level of disability, excess mortality from natural and unnatural causes, and a low rate of remission. The incidence, prevalence, and the fatality rate were estimated based on the study of the Global Burden of Disease and a review of the epidemiological literature. As the first episode of schizophrenia is currently not preventable, the occurrence represents how the epidemiological situation would be without intervention. In relation to the referral and the fatality, we did not found evidence that these rates change by a specific effect of the treatment; thus, they were kept as constants for the scenarios with or without treatment. Community-level interventions assessed were: 1. typical traditional antipsychotics (haloperidol), 2. new atypical antipsychotics (risperidone), 3. traditional antipsychotics + psychosocial treatment (family therapy, social skills training and cognitive behavioral therapy), 4. new antipsychotics + psychosocial treatment, 5. traditional antipsychotics + psychosocial treatment + case management, and 6. new antipsychotics + psychosocial treatment + case management. The effectiveness of the treatments referred to the control of positive and negative symptoms and associated levels of disability. To calculate the improvement in disability compared with natural history (when the disease is not treated), the effect sizes reported in controlled clinical trials were converted to a weight change of disability. Efficacy and extrapyramidal effects of typical and atypical antipsychotics compared to placebo were estimated from the meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials, with the score of the BPRS severity scale and the need anti-Parkinson drugs as efficacy measures. From another meta-analysis we obtained an estimate of the magnitude of the effect by adding psychosocial interventions. As an ad hoc Cochrane systematic review that found case management did not had a significant impact on clinical or psychosocial outcomes, only a minimal addition effect size when added to the combination of pharmacologic-psychosocial treatment was observed. Costs included those of the patient, the program and the training required to implement the intervention. The provision of community-based services, daily administration of antipsychotics and anticholinergics, and laboratory tests were taken into account. For psychological interventions were envisaged from 6 to 12 sessions: in primary care from 6 to 12 visits, in outpatients services a visit per month for 20-50% of cases, and in day care communitarian attention from 1-2 times a week for 20-50% of cases. A 3% discount by the process of converting future values to present ones and an age adjustment giving less weight to year lived by young were included. Finally, the cost of DALYs averted for each intervention was estimated to determine their cost-effectiveness. Results The main findings of the study are, in relation to the costs of interventions: 1. the largest share corresponds to those generated by medication, 2. the current intervention is the cheapest, and 3. the combination of new atypical antipsychotics, psychological treatment and proactive case management is the most expensive intervention. Concerning the effectiveness of interventions, the one available today, with a coverage of 50%, prevents 68 222 DALYs. Increasing coverage to 80%, the number of DALYs averted is almost doubled with the use of typical antipsychotics. The effect of psychological interventions makes the number of DALYs averted three to four times higher. Finally, in regard to cost effectiveness, the combination of typical antipsychotics, psychosocial intervention and proactive case management was the treatment with the best relation. The cost per DALY averted was $390,892 Mexican pesos, which corresponds to one third of the cost of DALY averted in the current scenario ($1,313,120 Mexican pesos). Conclusions The resources for the attention of a public health issue involve a social investment rather than an expense budget, but they are also finite and must be chosen properly to be allocated. Cost-effectiveness studies of available interventions are an essential tool for making such important decisions. Our Mexican study of cost-effectiveness of interventions to treat schizophrenia in communitarian settings suggests, in general terms: 1. That while the current situation is the one with the lowest cost, it is the least efficient, 2. all alternatives involve an additional cost to the current situation because they assume an expansion of coverage; however, the extra cost in not excessive, and 3) that within a model of community-based care, the least expensive option is treatment with typical antipsychotics combined with psychological intervention. Thus, for a modest extra cost it is possible to yield a major impact on disability. Recently, the Mexican Federal Government has included schizophrenia in the catalog of diseases covered by the program called <<Seguro Popular>>, that provides a health insurance to general population, especially to the poorest and unemployed ones. The planned actions include four specialty consultations in an interval of two months and annual psychopharmacological treatment. Clearly the addition of haloperidol, trifluoperazine and risperidone to the list of available medications should be considered a success. However, schizophrenia also requires a proactive case monitoring of long-term for best control of symptoms and a successful rehabilitation. Moreover, consistent with our findings, case management has proven to be cost-effective when compared with routine care in the community. Among the limitations of the study it is important to note that it was based on modeled parameters obtained from the international literature. In this sense, the challenge is the data generation directly from studies in Mexico.<hr/>Introducción La esquizofrenia es un trastorno que produce una importante discapacidad, y su costo para la sociedad es muy elevado. El estudio de la carga que impone la esquizofrenia sobre la sociedad, ya sea expresada en términos epidemiológicos o de costos, es una base insuficiente para establecer las prioridades para la asignación de recursos, por lo que se han desarrollado modelos económicos cada vez más elaborados. Tal es el caso de los estudios de costo-efectividad, que muestran la relación entre los recursos empleados (costos) y los beneficios logrados (efectividad) de una intervención comparada con otra(s). El presente trabajo forma parte de la iniciativa de la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) para la elección basada en evidencia de intervenciones costo-efectivas denominada WHO-CHOICE, Choosing Interventions that are Cost-Effective, que implica la determinación de una medida general que posibilita comparaciones internacionales: los años de vida vividos con discapacidad (AVISAs o DALYs, de las siglas de Disability-adjusted life years). Objetivo Fue determinar la relación costo-efectividad en México de diferentes intervenciones que han demostrado ser efectivas para el tratamiento comunitario de la esquizofrenia. Método Se evaluaron las siguientes intervenciones: 1. Antipsicóticos tradicionales típicos (haloperidol), 2. Antipsicóticos nuevos atípicos (risperidona), 3. Antipsicóticos tradicionales + tratamiento psicosocial (terapia familiar, entrenamiento en habilidades sociales y terapia cognitivo conductual), 4. Antipsicóticos nuevos + tratamiento psicosocial, 5. Antipsicóticos tradicionales + tratamiento psicosocial + manejo de caso, y 6. Antipsicóticos nuevos + tratamiento psicosocial + manejo de caso. La efectividad relativa de los tratamientos se refirió al control tanto de los síntomas positivos y negativos así como de los niveles asociados de discapacidad. Se consideraron los costos del paciente, del programa y del entrenamiento, así como un descuento de 3% por el proceso de convertir valores futuros a presentes, y un ajuste de edad, otorgando menos peso a los años vividos por los jóvenes. Finalmente, se calculó el costo por AVISA evitado por cada intervención para determinar su costo-efectividad. Resultados Los principales hallazgos del estudio son, en relación con los costos de las intervenciones: 1. que la mayor proporción corresponde a los generados por los medicamentos; 2. que la intervención actual resulta la más barata; y 3. que la combinación de antipsicótico nuevo o atípico con intervención psicosocial y manejo proactivo de caso es la más cara. En cuanto a la efectividad de las intervenciones, la disponible en la actualidad, con cobertura de 50%, evita 68 222 AVISAs. Aumentando la cobertura a 80%, el número de AVISAs evitados casi se duplica con el empleo de antipsicóticos típicos. El efecto de las intervenciones psicosociales hace que el número de AVISAs evitados sea tres a cuatro veces mayor. Finalmente, en lo que respecta a costo-efectividad, la combinación de antipsicóticos típicos, intervención psicosocial y manejo proactivo de caso fue el tratamiento con la mejor relación. El costo por AVISA evitado fue de $390,892, que corresponde a un tercio del costo de AVISA evitado en el escenario actual ($1,313,120). Conclusiones Los hallazgos del estudio sugieren, en términos generales: 1. Que aunque la situación actual es la de menor costo, es la menos eficiente; 2. Que todas las alternativas implican un costo adicional a la situación actual porque asumen una ampliación de la cobertura, sin embargo, ese costo extra no es excesivo; y 3. Que dentro de un modelo de atención basado en la comunidad, la opción menos costosa es el tratamiento con antipsicóticos típicos combinados con intervención psicosocial. Por un costo extra modesto se obtendría un impacto importante en la discapacidad. Entre las limitaciones del estudio destaca que fue producto de un modelado con parámetros obtenidos de la bibliografía internacional. En este sentido, el reto es la generación de datos derivados directamente de estudios realizados en México. <![CDATA[<b>Mecanismos de defensa en pacientes cardiópatas con y sin crisis de angustia</b>]]> http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0185-33252010000300002&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es Introduction Throughout the investigation of psychosocial factors in cardiovascular diseases, type A personality, anger, hostility, anxiety, and depression have been proved to participate in this kind of sufferings. Cardiac patients exposed more frequently to life stressing events than patients who do not suffer a cardiac disease might lack adaptive coping defense mechanisms to protect them or use maladaptive defense mechanisms that facilitate the pathogenic effects of anxiety. Few studies have been done in Mexico related to psychological defense mechanisms; none of them was related to medically ill patients. In the present study, the use of defense mechanisms by cardiac patients with panic disorder (panic attack) was compared to the use of defense mechanisms by patients that present similar cardiovascular pathologies but without mental disorders. Material and method The present investigation was made as a comparative and explanatory study with a nonexperimental design. The sample was constituted by two groups: one of 33 cardiac patients diagnosed with panic attack and another group, used as control, of 30 cardiac outpatients without psychiatric disorder; all attended the Instituto Nacional de Cardiología Ignacio Chávez (Mexico City). The 63 cardiac patients were evaluated using the Structured Interview for the Diagnosis of Axis I, Hamilton's Anxiety Scale, Hopkins's 90 Symptom Checklist and the Defensive Styles Questionnaire, self-report instrument whose reliability and validity has been established for Mexican patients with panic disorder. The statistical analysis was made through chi-square test, Student's t test, Pearson correlation and a gradual multiple regression analysis. Results Within the group of cardiac patients with panic attack, 72.73% were female patients and 27.27% male, with an average age of 38.52 ± 14.18 years and 5.73 ± 2.75 years of schooling. The group of cardiac patients used as control was formed by 30 subjects also in its majority female (56.7%), with an age of 45.27 ± 14.51 years and an average of 5.67 ± 3.31 years of schooling. The patients of the group with panic disorder had higher levels of anxiety and used more maladaptive defense mechanisms, such as social isolation and inhibition, tended to use more somatization and less the adaptive defenses (suppression, work orientation, sublimation, affiliation and humor), in comparison to the group without mental disorder. The criteria for panic disorder (DSM-IV) correlated directly with somatization; the ones from major depression correlated directly with regression and inversely with humor and socioeconomical level; the score in Hamilton's Anxiety Scale with maladaptive defenses as social isolation, acting out and somatization; the SCL-90 with the maladaptive defenses acting out, projection and regression. The multiple regression analysis determined that regression and somatization contributed to the panic disorder symptomatology, and leads to major depressive disorder; projection, somatization and social isolation to anxiety's intensity and reaction formation, humor, regression, fantasy, inhibition, projective identification, passive aggression and omnipotence in general to the psychiatric symptoms. Discussion The greater use of maladaptive defenses by the cardiac patients group with panic disorder allows to conclude that low level defenses are related to the symptoms of this mental disorder. This group showed relation between levels of anxiety, psychological discomfort and the use of maladaptive defenses such as social isolation, inhibition and somatization, tending to isolate themselves and presenting in a corporal or <<visceral>> form, through somatization, many physical symptoms. The observation of the use by cardiac patients without mental disorder of suppression, work orientation, sublimation, affiliation and humor, all of them adaptive defenses, reinforces this conclusion.<hr/>Introducción Gracias a la investigación de los factores psicosociales de las enfermedades cardiovasculares, se ha demostrado la participación de la conducta tipo A, enojo, hostilidad, aislamiento social, estrés, ansiedad y depresión en este tipo de padecimientos. La depresión asociada con frecuencia al infarto agudo del miocardio incrementa el riesgo de morir; los niveles altos de angustia se asocian al aumento en el riesgo de enfermedad coronaria y muerte súbita. Los pacientes cardiópatas expuestos a sucesos estresantes de la vida con más frecuencia que los pacientes que no padecen cardiopatía pueden carecer de mecanismos de defensa y afrontamiento adaptativos que los protejan o bien usan mecanismos de defensa desadaptativos que facilitan los efectos patogénicos de la ansiedad. En México se han realizado pocos estudios respecto a los mecanismos psicológicos de defensa y no hay estudios acerca del tema en pacientes médicamente enfermos. Conocer la forma en que el sujeto afronta su enfermedad permitiría una intervención psicoterapéutica oportuna en los pacientes médicos con el objetivo de mejorar su adaptación psicosocial y quizás su supervivencia. Por lo anterior, el objetivo del presente estudio es comparar el uso de los mecanismos de defensa de los pacientes cardiópatas con trastorno de angustia (crisis de angustia) con el de pacientes con patología cardiovascular similar pero sin trastornos mentales. Material y método Se realizó un estudio de tipo comparativo y explicativo con un diseño no experimental. La muestra estuvo constituida por dos grupos, uno de 33 pacientes cardiópatas diagnosticados con crisis de angustia y otro grupo, utilizado como control, de 30 sujetos cardiópatas sin trastorno psiquiátrico; todos acudían a Consulta Externa del Instituto Nacional de Cardiología Ignacio Chávez. Los 63 pacientes cardiópatas fueron evaluados utilizando la Entrevista Estructurada para el Diagnóstico del Eje I, la Escala de Ansiedad de Hamilton, la Lista de 90 Síntomas de Hopkins y el Cuestionario de Estilos Defensivos, instrumento autoaplicable que evalúa mecanismos de defensa adaptativos y desadaptativos del que se ha establecido su confiabilidad y validez en pacientes mexicanos con trastorno de angustia. El análisis estadístico se realizó a través de la chi cuadrada, t de Student, correlación de Pearson y un análisis de regresión múltiple gradual. Resultados Dentro del grupo de cardiopatías con crisis de angustia, 72.73% eran pacientes femeninos y 27.27% masculinos, con edad promedio de 38.52 ± 14.18 años y 5.73 ± 2.75 años de escolaridad. El grupo de pacientes cardiópatas, que se utilizó como control, estuvo constituido por 30 sujetos, también en su mayoría femeninos (56.7%), de 45.27 ± 14.51 años de edad con promedio de 5.67 ± 3.31 años de escolaridad. Los pacientes del grupo con trastorno de angustia tuvieron niveles más altos de ansiedad y utilizaron más mecanismos de defensa desadaptativos como aislamiento social e inhibición, tendieron a usar la somatización y utilizaron menos defensas adaptativas (supresión, orientación al trabajo, sublimación, afiliación y humor), en comparación con el grupo sin trastorno mental. Los criterios del trastorno de angustia (DSM-IV) se correlacionaron con la somatización; los de la depresión mayor, directamente con la regresión e inversamente con el humor y con el nivel socioeconómico; la puntuación de la Escala de Ansiedad de Hamilton, con defensas desadaptativas como aislamiento social, exoactuación y somatización; el SCL-90, con las defensas desadaptativas exoactuación, proyección y regresión. El análisis de regresión múltiple determinó que la regresión y la somatización contribuyeron a la sintomatología del trastorno de angustia, el consumo en el trastorno depresivo, la proyección, somatización y aislamiento social en la intensidad de la angustia y la formación reactiva, humor, regresión, fantasía, inhibición, identificación proyectiva, pasivo-agresividad y omnipotencia en la sintomatología psiquiátrica general. Discusión El mayor uso de defensas desadaptativas por parte del grupo de pacientes cardiópatas con trastorno de angustia permite concluir que las defensas de bajo nivel se relacionan con los síntomas de este trastorno mental. Este grupo mostró relación entre los niveles de ansiedad y malestar psicológico y la utilización de defensas desadaptativas como el aislamiento social, inhibición y somatización. Asimismo, tendió a aislarse y a manifestar en forma corporal o <<visceral>>, a través de la somatización, muchos síntomas físicos. La observación de que los pacientes cardiópatas sin trastorno mental utilizaron la supresión, orientación al trabajo, sublimación, afiliación y humor, todas ellas defensas adaptativas, refuerza esta conclusión. <![CDATA[<b><<Un infinito que no acaba>>. Modelos explicativos sobre la depresión y el malestar emocional entre los adolescentes barceloneses (España). </b><b>Segunda parte</b>]]> http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0185-33252010000300003&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es Introduction Throughout the investigation of psychosocial factors in cardiovascular diseases, type A personality, anger, hostility, anxiety, and depression have been proved to participate in this kind of sufferings. Cardiac patients exposed more frequently to life stressing events than patients who do not suffer a cardiac disease might lack adaptive coping defense mechanisms to protect them or use maladaptive defense mechanisms that facilitate the pathogenic effects of anxiety. Few studies have been done in Mexico related to psychological defense mechanisms; none of them was related to medically ill patients. In the present study, the use of defense mechanisms by cardiac patients with panic disorder (panic attack) was compared to the use of defense mechanisms by patients that present similar cardiovascular pathologies but without mental disorders. Material and method The present investigation was made as a comparative and explanatory study with a nonexperimental design. The sample was constituted by two groups: one of 33 cardiac patients diagnosed with panic attack and another group, used as control, of 30 cardiac outpatients without psychiatric disorder; all attended the Instituto Nacional de Cardiología Ignacio Chávez (Mexico City). The 63 cardiac patients were evaluated using the Structured Interview for the Diagnosis of Axis I, Hamilton's Anxiety Scale, Hopkins's 90 Symptom Checklist and the Defensive Styles Questionnaire, self-report instrument whose reliability and validity has been established for Mexican patients with panic disorder. The statistical analysis was made through chi-square test, Student's t test, Pearson correlation and a gradual multiple regression analysis. Results Within the group of cardiac patients with panic attack, 72.73% were female patients and 27.27% male, with an average age of 38.52 ± 14.18 years and 5.73 ± 2.75 years of schooling. The group of cardiac patients used as control was formed by 30 subjects also in its majority female (56.7%), with an age of 45.27 ± 14.51 years and an average of 5.67 ± 3.31 years of schooling. The patients of the group with panic disorder had higher levels of anxiety and used more maladaptive defense mechanisms, such as social isolation and inhibition, tended to use more somatization and less the adaptive defenses (suppression, work orientation, sublimation, affiliation and humor), in comparison to the group without mental disorder. The criteria for panic disorder (DSM-IV) correlated directly with somatization; the ones from major depression correlated directly with regression and inversely with humor and socioeconomical level; the score in Hamilton's Anxiety Scale with maladaptive defenses as social isolation, acting out and somatization; the SCL-90 with the maladaptive defenses acting out, projection and regression. The multiple regression analysis determined that regression and somatization contributed to the panic disorder symptomatology, and leads to major depressive disorder; projection, somatization and social isolation to anxiety's intensity and reaction formation, humor, regression, fantasy, inhibition, projective identification, passive aggression and omnipotence in general to the psychiatric symptoms. Discussion The greater use of maladaptive defenses by the cardiac patients group with panic disorder allows to conclude that low level defenses are related to the symptoms of this mental disorder. This group showed relation between levels of anxiety, psychological discomfort and the use of maladaptive defenses such as social isolation, inhibition and somatization, tending to isolate themselves and presenting in a corporal or <<visceral>> form, through somatization, many physical symptoms. The observation of the use by cardiac patients without mental disorder of suppression, work orientation, sublimation, affiliation and humor, all of them adaptive defenses, reinforces this conclusion.<hr/>Introducción Gracias a la investigación de los factores psicosociales de las enfermedades cardiovasculares, se ha demostrado la participación de la conducta tipo A, enojo, hostilidad, aislamiento social, estrés, ansiedad y depresión en este tipo de padecimientos. La depresión asociada con frecuencia al infarto agudo del miocardio incrementa el riesgo de morir; los niveles altos de angustia se asocian al aumento en el riesgo de enfermedad coronaria y muerte súbita. Los pacientes cardiópatas expuestos a sucesos estresantes de la vida con más frecuencia que los pacientes que no padecen cardiopatía pueden carecer de mecanismos de defensa y afrontamiento adaptativos que los protejan o bien usan mecanismos de defensa desadaptativos que facilitan los efectos patogénicos de la ansiedad. En México se han realizado pocos estudios respecto a los mecanismos psicológicos de defensa y no hay estudios acerca del tema en pacientes médicamente enfermos. Conocer la forma en que el sujeto afronta su enfermedad permitiría una intervención psicoterapéutica oportuna en los pacientes médicos con el objetivo de mejorar su adaptación psicosocial y quizás su supervivencia. Por lo anterior, el objetivo del presente estudio es comparar el uso de los mecanismos de defensa de los pacientes cardiópatas con trastorno de angustia (crisis de angustia) con el de pacientes con patología cardiovascular similar pero sin trastornos mentales. Material y método Se realizó un estudio de tipo comparativo y explicativo con un diseño no experimental. La muestra estuvo constituida por dos grupos, uno de 33 pacientes cardiópatas diagnosticados con crisis de angustia y otro grupo, utilizado como control, de 30 sujetos cardiópatas sin trastorno psiquiátrico; todos acudían a Consulta Externa del Instituto Nacional de Cardiología Ignacio Chávez. Los 63 pacientes cardiópatas fueron evaluados utilizando la Entrevista Estructurada para el Diagnóstico del Eje I, la Escala de Ansiedad de Hamilton, la Lista de 90 Síntomas de Hopkins y el Cuestionario de Estilos Defensivos, instrumento autoaplicable que evalúa mecanismos de defensa adaptativos y desadaptativos del que se ha establecido su confiabilidad y validez en pacientes mexicanos con trastorno de angustia. El análisis estadístico se realizó a través de la chi cuadrada, t de Student, correlación de Pearson y un análisis de regresión múltiple gradual. Resultados Dentro del grupo de cardiopatías con crisis de angustia, 72.73% eran pacientes femeninos y 27.27% masculinos, con edad promedio de 38.52 ± 14.18 años y 5.73 ± 2.75 años de escolaridad. El grupo de pacientes cardiópatas, que se utilizó como control, estuvo constituido por 30 sujetos, también en su mayoría femeninos (56.7%), de 45.27 ± 14.51 años de edad con promedio de 5.67 ± 3.31 años de escolaridad. Los pacientes del grupo con trastorno de angustia tuvieron niveles más altos de ansiedad y utilizaron más mecanismos de defensa desadaptativos como aislamiento social e inhibición, tendieron a usar la somatización y utilizaron menos defensas adaptativas (supresión, orientación al trabajo, sublimación, afiliación y humor), en comparación con el grupo sin trastorno mental. Los criterios del trastorno de angustia (DSM-IV) se correlacionaron con la somatización; los de la depresión mayor, directamente con la regresión e inversamente con el humor y con el nivel socioeconómico; la puntuación de la Escala de Ansiedad de Hamilton, con defensas desadaptativas como aislamiento social, exoactuación y somatización; el SCL-90, con las defensas desadaptativas exoactuación, proyección y regresión. El análisis de regresión múltiple determinó que la regresión y la somatización contribuyeron a la sintomatología del trastorno de angustia, el consumo en el trastorno depresivo, la proyección, somatización y aislamiento social en la intensidad de la angustia y la formación reactiva, humor, regresión, fantasía, inhibición, identificación proyectiva, pasivo-agresividad y omnipotencia en la sintomatología psiquiátrica general. Discusión El mayor uso de defensas desadaptativas por parte del grupo de pacientes cardiópatas con trastorno de angustia permite concluir que las defensas de bajo nivel se relacionan con los síntomas de este trastorno mental. Este grupo mostró relación entre los niveles de ansiedad y malestar psicológico y la utilización de defensas desadaptativas como el aislamiento social, inhibición y somatización. Asimismo, tendió a aislarse y a manifestar en forma corporal o <<visceral>>, a través de la somatización, muchos síntomas físicos. La observación de que los pacientes cardiópatas sin trastorno mental utilizaron la supresión, orientación al trabajo, sublimación, afiliación y humor, todas ellas defensas adaptativas, refuerza esta conclusión. <![CDATA[<b>Perfiles de los indicadores relacionados con las disfunciones sexuales masculinas</b>: <b>trastorno de la erección, trastorno del orgasmo y eyaculación precoz</b>]]> http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0185-33252010000300004&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es The systematic study of sexuality is relatively recent if we consider the works of Freud and Kinsey and the studies performed during the first half of the XXth century. The fact of undertaking the sex problem has allowed an even deeper understanding of this phenomenon, by all means complex. Later on, Masters, Johnson and Kolodny created the model of human sexual response and its alterations. Kaplan's works as well as Labrador and Crespo's are directed to conceptualize the etiology of sexual dysfunctions as phenomena evolving from both recent and remote causes, i.e., they can be explained as multi-causal events. At the Department of Psychology of the National Institute of Perinatology (INPerIER), we have detected a high proportion of couples with problems in their sexual lives. The prevalence of sexual dysfunction found was 52% in women and 38.8% in men. Therefore, we decided to initiate a line of investigation on human sexuality, to which this work belongs. The aim was to identify the frequency, difference, relation and combination of three sexual dysfunctions: erectile dysfunction, male orgasmic disorder and precocious ejaculation, as well as some intervening factors that were divided in two types. a) Personality factors, including gender role: prescriptions, norms and expectations according to rules set by the society which are introjected by the individual. When the expression of masculinity and femininity polarizes reaching machisms and submissive behavior, this can result in a negative influence for the development of sexuality. Another personality factor is the level of self-esteem, which greatly determines the conduct of individuals and is defined as the personal judgment of value towards oneself; it is expressed in the form of attitudes of the individual towards himself. b) The existence of some sexual background such as the report of having suffered child traumatic experience of sexual abuse; availability of sex information; presence or absence of sex fears; masturbation during adolescence and absence or presence of conjugal problems. It must be said that the division of intervening factors into types allowed us to propose profiles for the indicators related with the presence of the aforementioned male sexual dysfunctions. These dysfunctions are described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR). Material and methods This was a non-experimental, one-sample, retrospective, transversal, multivariate-correlational field study of independent observations, with samples allocated in two groups. Samples We got non-probabilistic samples from couples of patients recently accepted for service at the institution, according to pre-established quotas. Sample size consisted of 200 men, with 100 men showing no sexual dysfunction (group 1) and 100 men with evidence of sexual dysfunction (group 2). Results of erectile dysfunction, male orgasmic disorder and precocious ejaculation are presented here; they were compared with the same number of participants showing no sexual dysfunction. Participants were limited to individuals who met the following criteria: age range, 22 to 45 years old; elementary school as the minimum schooling; no history of mental illness or chronic disease that could condition the presence of male sexual dysfunctions. Socio-demographic factors controlled in this study included age, civil status and schooling; the classification variable was set to be the presence of male sexual dysfunctions. Instruments For the classification of groups, in order to detect the type of dysfunction present, and for the sake of capturing sexual background data, we used the male version of the questionnaire of sexuality, based on the codified clinical history for female sexuality. For the measurement of gender role, we used the Inventory of Masculinity-Femininity (IMAFE), which measures four orientations: male, female, machismo and submission. For the measurement of self-esteem we used Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, and the validation technique suggested by Lara, Verduzco, Acevedo and Cortés. Participants were approached at the external consultation area at the INPerIER. Instruments described above were applied as well as clinical histories obtained in one single session, individually, once the participant had signed the informed consent letter required by the Committee of Ethics of the INPerIER. Results The most frequent dysfunction detected was precocious ejaculation, which was present in 48 participants. Thirty four men were reported with erectile dysfunction and 15 men showed male orgasmic disorders. In a previous article, we presented the results of hypoactive sexual disorder, the sexual dysfunction more frequently found (55 male participants reported it). In this case we observed that out of 100 participants studied, the overall number of dysfunctions found was 152, including hypoactive sexual disorder, which can be interpreted as one and a half dysfunctions per man. For the sake of establishing the relationship of each sexual dysfunction with personality factors, we estimated the ETA coefficient. In the case of the relation between sexual dysfunctions and sexual background we calculated Cramer's V. Once we established the relations between the personality factors and the background that were used to develop profiles, we performed a discriminant analysis, which included all variables we found related and we came out with the following results: For erectile dysfunction we found a relation with three variables: negative relation with femininity and self-esteem, and positive relation with conjugal problems. In the case of the male orgasmic disorder, we found a relation with five variables: negative relation with femininity and self-esteem, and positive relation with child sexual traumatic experience, masturbation and conjugal problems. In the case of precocious ejaculation, we detected a relation with four variables: negative relation with masculinity, femininity and self-esteem, and positive relation with conjugal problems. The relations that became evident in every dysfunction showed that in this proportion, the discriminant variables provided us with an approximate explanation. Discussion The frequency of sexual dysfunctions can be described as high. The analysis of the results made evident that two factors are always present in these sexual dysfunctions: a tendency to show low self-esteem and the presence of conjugal problems. Alongside the different dimensions of gender roles, there is a decrease of the masculinity features in the case of precocious ejaculation; the reduction of femininity features is found in the three dysfunctions under study. There is a tendency to inhibition of both the sexual expressions and the affective expressions (femininity features), which are found combined in the case of precocious ejaculation, combined as well with a decrease of the masculinity features. When it comes to the sexual background, we observed that the history of child sexual traumatic experience is a risk indicator for the orgasmic disorder, as well as the report of practicing masturbation during adolescence. We can infer from this that this can be due to the type of masturbation limited to a biological discharge and not to the exploration addressed to a self-knowledge of the body. Another indicator present only in the orgasmic disorder is the fear of sexuality. It can be observed that the sexual dysfunction that presents more indicators is the male orgasmic disorder. For what we explained here, it becomes relevant to develop integral intervention plans for the adequate exploration of indicators related to these dysfunctions.<hr/>El estudio sistematizado de la sexualidad es relativamente reciente y ha permitido una comprensión más profunda de este fenómeno, por demás complejo. Masters, Johnson y Kolodny generaron el modelo de la respuesta sexual humana y sus alteraciones, o sea, las disfunciones sexuales. Los trabajos de Kaplan y de Labrador y Crespo han conceptualizado la etiología de las disfunciones sexuales como fenómenos que se deben tanto a causas recientes como remotas. En el departamento de Psicología del Instituto Nacional de Perinatología (INPerIER), la prevalencia encontrada de disfunciones sexuales fue, en las mujeres, de 52%, y de 38.8% en los hombres, por lo que se generó una línea de investigación de sexualidad humana de la cual forma parte este estudio que tiene por objetivo identificar la frecuencia, la diferencia, la relación y la combinación entre tres disfunciones sexuales masculinas: el trastorno de la erección, el trastorno del orgasmo y la eyaculación precoz, y algunos factores intervinientes: a) factores de personalidad, como el papel de género y el nivel de autoestima y b) algunos antecedentes sexuales, como son el reporte de haber sufrido una experiencia sexual infantil traumática, el tener o no información sexual, la presencia o no de temores a la sexualidad, masturbación durante la adolescencia y el tener o no problemas conyugales, y así proponer perfiles de los indicadores relacionados con la presencia de estas disfunciones sexuales clasificadas en el Manual Diagnóstico y Estadístico de los Trastornos Mentales (DSM-IV-TR). Material y método Diseño correlacional-multivariado, de una muestra dividida en dos y de observaciones independientes, fue un estudio no experimental de campo, retrospectivo y transversal. Muestra Se capturó una muestra no probabilística de las parejas de las pacientes recién aceptadas en el INPerIER para su atención mediante un muestreo intencional por cuota. La muestra fue de 200 hombres, 100 sin disfunciones sexuales (grupo 1) y 100 con disfunciones sexuales (grupo 2) de los cuales se presentan los resultados del trastorno de la erección, trastorno orgásmico masculino y eyaculación precoz que se compararon con el mismo número de participantes que no tuvieron ninguna disfunción sexual. Los participantes debieron cubrir con los criterios de inclusión: edad de 22 a 45 años, educación mínima de primaria, sin diagnóstico previo de enfermedad mental o crónica que pudiera condicionar la presencia de disfunciones sexuales. Los factores sociodemográficos controlados fueron: edad, estado civil y escolaridad; la variable de clasificación fue la presencia de estas disfunciones sexuales masculinas. Instrumentos Para detectar el tipo de disfunción y la captura de los antecedentes, se utilizó el Cuestionario de la Sexualidad versión para Hombres. Para la medición del papel de género se utilizó el Inventario de Masculinidad-Feminidad IMAFE. Para medir la autoestima se utilizó el Inventario de Autoestima de Coopersmith, validación mexicana. Resultados La disfunción más frecuente fue la eyaculación precoz, reportada por 48 participantes, 34 reportaron trastorno de la erección y 15 trastorno del orgasmo. Las relaciones se realizaron con el coeficiente ETA y con la V de Cramer, además de un análisis discriminante. Se encontró en trastorno de la erección relación negativa con feminidad y autoestima y positiva con problemas conyugales. En trastorno del orgasmo, relación negativa con feminidad y autoestima y positiva con experiencia sexual infantil traumática, masturbación y problemas conyugales. En eyaculación precoz, relación negativa con masculinidad, feminidad y autoestima y positiva con problemas conyugales. <![CDATA[<b>Utilización de servicios de atención a la salud mental en mujeres víctimas de violencia conyugal</b>]]> http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0185-33252010000300005&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es Violence against women is one of the main problems that affect life quality around the world due to severe injuries, serious mental health problems, as well as reproductive and sexual difficulties. Different studies show that the majority of abused women present an immediate reaction of distress which, if not treated, might turn into more severe emotional conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder, major depression, psychosomatic symptoms, anxiety disorder, alcohol and/or drug abuse. The information about service utilization by abused women is controversial. Some studies estimate that health care services utilization is more frequent among abused women. For instance, a study carried out in the United States suggests that the likelihood of using health care services is twice as high among women who had suffered violence as compared to women who had not been abused. In contrast, other studies point that abused women deal with several difficulties to receive attention. This information is consistent with the idea that mental health problems prevent abused women from acknowledging the severity of their situation and, thus, they have more difficulties to protect themselves, to seek help, and to identify the institutions they can resort to. The majority of studies reporting service utilization by violence victims focus on injury care at emergency rooms, while the information about the attention of violence-related mental health problems and the expenditure it represents is scarcer. There are data suggesting that formal sources of health care are not the first choice due to a number of barriers which can be cultural (beliefs and values) or structural (limited availability and accessibility). Moreover, when women finally reach formal services, their demands are not totally fulfilled. Only a few studies have been carried out in Mexico. For example, a national survey with a representative sample of women who attended public health care services showed that 21.5% had suffered some form of violence from an intimate partner and 25% of them had never talked about that problem with a service provider, mainly because they lacked trust, they were ashamed or because they considered it as a private problem. The objective of this study is to determine the prevalence of mental health problems among a sample of female victims of intimate partner violence, to analyze the characteristics of mental health services utilization, and the reasons to seek help in this group. The data reported herein are part of a household survey which included four low income communities in the Southern area of Mexico City. The survey required multistage sampling: blocks were selected in the first stage, dwelling segments at stage two, and the final stage consisted in the random selection of one person aged 15 or older, living in the selected household, Spanish speaking, and without major mental diseases that would prevent him/her to answer the questionnaire. This procedure yielded a final sample of 1156 individuals, 49% males and 51% females. This study considers only a sub-sample of women who reported having an abusive male partner by the time of the survey (n=135). The questionnaire used includes several sections: 1. sociodemographic data and dwelling characteristics, 2. mental health services utilization, 3. a few sections of the CIDI v.1.1, 4. the Spanish version of the Danger Assessment Scale adapted to Mexican population. The interviewees agreed to participate voluntarily after the objectives and terms of confidentiality were explained; the questionnaire was administered through individual interviews by trained personnel. The section on intimate partner violence was completed only by women who had a male partner at the moment. The services considered in this study include Medical services: physician, family practitioner or other specialist (gynecologist, cardiologist, etc.), nurse, first level clinic. Mental health specialist: psychiatrist, psychologist, nurse specialized in mental health care. Alternative services: curanderos (folk practitioners), herbalist, spiritists, acupuncture, Bach's flowers, Reiki therapists, masseuses, bone and muscle therapists. Religious ministers: priest, spiritual counselors, rabbi, etc. The final sample includes 135 women who had suffered some form of violence; 30% were aged between 35 and 44 years and 26% were 25 to 34 years old. Most of them were housewives and 65% attained elementary school. As to the presence of psychiatric symptoms, 8.8% met the criteria for depressive disorder and 21.7% met criteria for anxiety disorder. When women who suffered physical violence are considered separately, the proportion of individuals with a depressive disorder is significantly higher (16%) than the proportion of women who had not suffered physical violence. Women diagnosed with depressive disorder reported physical violence (66.7%), being forced into sexual intercourse (50%), and threatens of death (33.3%). On the other hand, control over daily activities was the most frequent form of violence reported by women with anxiety disorder (55.2%). Out of all women who reported at least one form of violence, only 16.2% sought help to treat mental health problems. Nearly 42% of women with depressive disorders sought help with mental health specialists and 25% with a general practitioner. As to anxiety disorders, no significant differences were found as to service utilization. The main reason to seek help for those who presented any disorder was to think they really needed help, followed by feeling very nervous and crying all the time. Reasons for not seeking help include not knowing what to do and being ashamed. In general, these findings are consistent with previous studies reporting low utilization of mental health care services by victims of violence. The proportion increases when depressive or anxiety symptoms are present; however, the number of women seeking help remains low. These results are relevant since research on service utilization by abused women has focused on emergency rooms, while little attention has been placed on mental health services. Data must be considered with caution since this is a cross-sectional study and it is not possible to establish the temporal sequence of events; nevertheless, they provide evidence of a clear relation among mental disorders and violence.<hr/>Existe controversia en cuanto al uso de servicios por parte de las mujeres víctimas de violencia. Algunos estudios estiman que, debido al gran número de padecimientos que se asocian con la violencia de pareja, el uso de servicios de atención a la salud es más frecuente entre las mujeres que sufren maltrato. En contraste, otras investigaciones señalan que las mujeres sometidas a abusos enfrentan más dificultades para recibir atención a la salud. Este último dato coincide con la idea de que los problemas de salud mental que padecen las mujeres maltratadas les impiden reconocer la gravedad de su situación y, en consecuencia, tienen mayores dificultades para protegerse, buscar ayuda e identificar las instituciones a las que pueden recurrir. La mayoría de los reportes sobre la utilización de servicios por mujeres víctimas de violencia se centra en la atención de lesiones físicas en salas de urgencias, mientras que es más escasa la información sobre la atención de problemas de salud mental asociados a la violencia y los costos que ésta genera. El objetivo del presente trabajo es analizar la prevalencia de trastornos mentales, las características del uso de servicios de salud mental y las razones para buscar ayuda en un grupo de mujeres víctimas de violencia. Los datos forman parte de una encuesta de hogares realizada en cuatro comunidades de bajos ingresos del sur de la Ciudad de México. Se realizó un muestreo multietápico: en la primera etapa se eligieron las manzanas, en la segunda se escogieron segmentos de viviendas y en la etapa final se seleccionó de manera aleatoria a una persona mayor de 15 años que viviera de manera habitual en el hogar seleccionado, que hablara español y cuyas facultades mentales no presentaran problemas serios que impidieran realizar la entrevista. Se obtuvo una muestra de 1156 individuos; este trabajo considera únicamente una submuestra de mujeres que tenían pareja del sexo opuesto al momento de realizar la entrevista y que reportaron haber sufrido por lo menos alguna forma de violencia (n=135). El cuestionario comprende las siguientes secciones: 1. datos sociodemográficos; 2. utilización de servicios de atención a la salud mental, donde las modalidades consideradas son: servicio médico, especialista en salud mental, servicios alternativos, ministro religioso; 3. algunos módulos del CIDI versión 1.1; 4. una versión en español de la Escala de Evaluación del Peligro adaptada a la población mexicana. Del total de la muestra, 8.9% cubrieron los criterios de trastorno depresivo y 21.7% los criterios de trastorno de ansiedad. Las mujeres diagnosticadas con trastorno depresivo reportaron con mayor frecuencia violencia física (66.7%), relaciones sexuales forzadas (50%) y amenazas de muerte (33.3%). Por otra parte, el control de las actividades diarias fue la forma de violencia más reportada por las entrevistadas con trastorno de ansiedad (55.2%). Del total de mujeres que reportaron maltrato, 16.2% buscaron ayuda para atender sus problemas de salud mental. El 41.7% de las que cubrieron los criterios de trastorno depresivo recurrieron a especialistas en salud mental y 25% a médicos generales. En cuanto a los trastornos de ansiedad, no se observaron diferencias significativas respecto al uso de servicios. En general, los resultados son congruentes con estudios previos en que se reporta una escasa utilización de servicios de atención por mujeres que sufren violencia. Si bien es cierto que esta proporción aumenta ante la presencia de trastornos depresivos o de ansiedad, el número de mujeres que solicitan ayuda profesional es bajo. Estos hallazgos son relevantes en tanto que la investigación sobre el uso de servicios por parte de mujeres maltratadas se ha concentrado en la asistencia a salas de urgencia, dejando de lado las necesidades de atención especializada en salud mental. <![CDATA[<b>Jóvenes mexicanos y depresión: el rol de confidentes</b>]]> http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0185-33252010000300006&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es Background The current lifetime prevalence of depression among females in Mexico is 9.1% and 2.9% among males. The overall lifetime prevalence of depression is 6.2% among the general population of Mexico. Individuals that experience depressive symptomology at a young age are more likely to experience a depressive episode later in life. The risk of recurrence 24 months after the first episode of depression is 37.3%. There is scarce information about the prevalence of depression among adolescents in Mexico. However, a study of adults in Mexico City by Benjet et al. found that 2.8% of females and 1.1% of males experienced a depressive episode during adolescence. Research indicates that adolescents are especially vulnerable to mental and physical health problems. During the developmental transition, females are more vulnerable to these problems than males, including depression. The ways in which adolescents adapt and become adults can either protect or put them at risk for depressive symptomology and subsequent mental and physical disorders. The act of disclosure (talking to a confidant), which involves the sharing of personal thoughts and ideas with others, is an important mechanism through which adults and children form intimate relationships and develop good mental health. Objectives The objective of this study was to determine the association between type of confidant and depressive symptomology, and to identify some potential risk and protective factors of depression, including differences by gender, among a sample of Mexican youth. We hypothesized that not having a confidant would be associated with greater levels of depressive symptomology, and that this would differ by gender. Methods We used cross-sectional data obtained from 1,079 youths and adolescents aged 11 to 20 who were recruited to participate in the Health Worker Cohort Study (HWCS) between the years of 2004 and 2006. The HWCS included children and relatives of workers from the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS) in Morelos and from Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, both located in Cuernavaca. Participants were also selected from a similar sample of workers from the Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México (UAEM) in Toluca, capital of the State of Mexico. The participants from all three study sites are being followed in an ongoing cohort study of lifestyle and health. A self-reported questionnaire was administered to obtain information on lifestyle factors, socio-demographic data, health status, and quality of life. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to determine the association between confidant type and levels of depressive symptomology while controlling for demographic factors. Stratified analyses were also carried out, as it was hypothesized that the effect of disclosure to a confidant would vary by gender. Results In our study population, males had significantly lower levels of depressive symptomology than females; the mean BDI score for males was 5.6 and for females it was 8.7. Among both males and females, having only peer confidants is associated with higher levels of depressive symptomology, and having family confidants is associated with lower levels of depression. Males with peer confidants have the highest levels of depressive symptomology followed by those with no confidants, and those with family and peer confidants, as compared to males who reported having only a family confidant. Females with no confidant or with only peer confidants have higher levels of depressive symptomology than females with only family confidants. Among females, depressive symptomology increases with age, with females aged 17-20 having the highest levels of depressive symptomology. Financial symptomology predicts depressive symptomology among both males and females. Conclusions Our study shows that having a family member to talk to may be a protective factor against depressive symptomology among this sample of Mexican youth. Adolescents with a family confidant were found to have significantly lower levels of depressive symptomology than those who have only peer or no confidants. In the transition to adulthood, the presence of a family confidant positively influences the emotional well-being of boys and girls. Interventions that address the different disclosure needs of male and female adolescents may help reduce or prevent depressive symptomology among this population.<hr/>Antecedentes La prevalencia actual de depresión en México es de 9.1% en las mujeres y de 2.9% entre los hombres. En conjunto, la prevalencia de depresión entre la población general de México es de 6.2% durante el transcurso de la vida. Diversos estudios señalan que los individuos que presentan a edades tempranas un trastorno depresivo es más probable que más tarde en su vida sufran un episodio depresivo. El riesgo de presentar una recurrencia de depresión 24 meses después del primer episodio es de 37.3%. En México hay escasa información sobre la prevalencia de depresión entre los adolescentes. Las investigaciones señalan que los adolescentes son vulnerables a padecer problemas de salud tanto físicos como mentales. Durante la transición del desarrollo de la adolescencia, las mujeres son más vulnerables que los hombres a padecer este tipo de problemas, entre los que se encuentra la depresión. Las formas en que los adolescentes se adaptan y se convierten en adultos pueden protegerlos o ponerlos en riesgo de presentar trastornos depresivos y subsecuentes trastornos físicos y mentales. El acto de divulgar (platicar con un confidente) implica compartir pensamientos e ideas personales con otros y es un importante mecanismo por medio del cual los adultos y los niños forman relaciones cercanas y desarrollan una buena salud mental. Objetivos El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar la asociación entre el tipo de confidente y el trastorno depresivo e identificar algunos riesgos potenciales y factores protectores de depresión en una muestra de jóvenes mexicanos. Planteamos la hipótesis de que no contar con un confidente podría estar asociado con niveles más altos de sintomatología depresiva, asociación que podría ser distinta de acuerdo con el sexo. Métodos Se utilizaron los datos transversales recabados en 1079 jóvenes y adolescentes de 11 a 20 años, quienes fueron reclutados para participar en el Estudio Cohorte de Trabajadores (ECT) entre los años de 2004 a 2006. El ECT incluye niños y familiares de trabajadores del Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS) en Morelos y del Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, ambos localizados en la ciudad de Cuernavaca. También se seleccionó una muestra similar de participantes de los trabajadores de la Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México (UAEM) en Toluca, capital del Estado de México. Los participantes de las tres sedes están en seguimiento en el estudio de cohorte prospectivo sobre salud y estilos de vida. Se administró un cuestionario autoaplicado para obtener información sobre datos sociodemográficos, estilos de vida, estado de salud y calidad de vida. Se realizaron análisis bivariados y multivariados para determinar la asociación entre el tipo de confidente y niveles de sintomatología depresiva controlando por factores sociodemográficos. Adicionalmente, se realizaron análisis estratificados bajo la hipótesis de que el efecto de divulgación a un confidente (platicar con un confidente) podría variar por sexo. Resultados En nuestra población de estudio, los hombres reportaron niveles significativamente más bajos de trastorno depresivo que las mujeres; la media de la puntuación del Inventario de Depresión de Beck (BDI) fue de 5.6 para hombres y de 8.7 para las mujeres. Entre ambos, tanto hombres como mujeres, contar sólo con amigos como confidentes se asocia con altos niveles de trastorno depresivo y contar con familiares como confidentes se asocia con menores niveles de depresión. Los hombres que cuentan con amigos como sus confidentes tienen los niveles más altos de sintomatología depresiva, seguidos por aquellos que cuentan con confidentes y de quienes cuentan como confidentes a amigos y familiares. Las mujeres que no tienen confidentes o que sólo cuentan con amigos como confidentes tienen niveles más altos de sintomatología depresiva que las que sólo cuentan con familiares como confidentes. Entre las mujeres, la sintomatología depresiva se incrementa con la edad; como lo señalan nuestros resultados las mujeres de 17 a 20 años presentaron los niveles más altos de sintomatología depresiva. En relación con otros factores asociados, encontramos que, tanto en hombres como en mujeres, el estrés financiero es un predictor de sintomatología depresiva. Conclusiones Nuestro estudio señala que contar con un miembro de la familia con quien platicar es un factor protector contra el trastorno depresivo en esta muestra de jóvenes mexicanos. Los adolescentes que cuentan con un familiar como confidente presentan niveles de sintomatología depresiva significativamente menores que aquellos que sólo cuentan con amigos o quienes no tienen confidentes. En la transición hacia la adultez, la presencia de un familiar como confidente influye positivamente en el bienestar emocional de niñas y niños. Las intervenciones que toman en cuenta las diferentes necesidades de divulgación de los adolescentes (de contar con un confidente) podrían ayudar a reducir o prevenir la sintomatología depresiva en esta población. <![CDATA[<b>Las endorfinas</b>: <b>implicaciones farmacológicas y funcionales de estos péptidos opioides en el cerebro de los mamíferos. Segunda parte</b>]]> http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0185-33252010000300007&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es Endomorphin-1 (EM1) and Endomorphin-2 (EM2) represent the two endogenous C-terminal amide tetrapeptides shown to display a high binding affinity and selectivity for the µ-opioid receptor as reported previously (see previous paper, Part I). Endomorphins injected into the VTA were shown to enhance the development of behavioral sensitization responses to amphetamine (AMPH), besides of inducing an increase of locomotion (horizontal) activity in animals. These studies showed that EM2 was significantly more potent than EM1 in modulating the increased opioid-mediated ambulatory responses by altering the dopamine (DA) projecting system in the globus pallidus in tested animals. Several transmission systems (e.g., GABA) have been shown to participate in the endormorphin-induced locomotor responses. EM1 injected into the VTA produced potent rewarding effects in rodents, similar to the rewarding responses produced by distinct opiate compounds. The opioid rewarding responses induced by EM1-2 were shown to be mediated via the activation of both GABAergic and the dopamine (VTA-NAc-PFCx) transmission systems in the brain. Moreover, EM1-2 peptides injected into the VTA, but not in the NAc, produced similar related-rewarding responses induced by low doses of morphine. However, ICV administration of EM1 was shown to enhance a significant conditioned-place preference (CPP); whereas EM2 displayed a place aversion in tested animals. With regard to stress-related behaviors and physiological responses in mammals, endomorphin peptides have been proposed to modulate the HPA axis function via activation of the NTS-projecting neural system impinging on hypothalamic neurons, and/or via activation of the PAG (ventrolateral area) mediating analgesic responses-induced by stress. EM1-2 peptides have been shown to induce mood-related behaviors. For instance, administration of EM1 induced an increased anxiolytic response in mice when tested in elevated plus maze paradigms, results that showed that the µ-opioid receptor modulates mood-related responses in animals and humans, as well. Interesting enough is the recent observation that EM1-2 peptides may induce antidepressant-like behaviors in animals models of stress and depression, whereby EM1-2 peptides have been shown to up-regulate in a dose-dependent manner the neuronal expression of the BDNF mRNA in rat limbic areas involved in stress and depressive-like behaviors. Thus, these studies led to the proposition that endomorphin peptides may play crucial roles in psychiatric disorders (e.g., depression, schizophrenia). Furthermore, over the past years, it has been shown that µ-opioid receptor agonists (e.g., morphine, DAMGO; morphine-6β-glucuronide) displayed potent orexigenic activities in the CNS of mammals, similar to that displayed by EM1-2 peptides, whose dose-dependent orexigenic activity appears to be mediated by the endogenous opioid peptide, Dynorphin A, acting on its cognate κ-opioid receptor at the hypothalamus. Extensive studies revealed the activity of the EOS (e.g., β-endorphin) on the regulation of gonadal hormones and sexually-induced behaviors (e.g., lordosis) in female rats. β-endorphin or morphiceptin have been shown to facilitate lordosis behaviors in estrogen- and/or estrogen/progesterone primed rats, whereas EM1-2 peptides injected into third ventricle or into the diagonal band (DB) produced dose- and time-dependent, naloxone-reversible lordosis responses in female rats. These results posit that EM1-2 peptides produce their sexual behaviors and mating responses via modulating the cell release of LHRH and modulating GABA transmission system in the brain. Endomorphins have been shown to impair short- and long-term memory processing in mice when exposed to different learning paradigms. These opioid mediated effects appear to be regulated through the interaction of both cholinergic and dopaminergic transmissions in the brain. In addition, endomorphins have been shown to modulate cardiovascular and respiratory bioactivities, acting on several rostrocaudal areas of the CNS of mammals. Administration of EM1-2 peptides induced a significant reduction of heart rate and blood pressure in normotensive and hypertensive rats, via regulation of GABA and glutamate transmission systems. Although the exact endogenous mechanisms by which EM1-2 peptides produce their vasoactive responses are still unclear, several studies suggested that the peptide activity depends on the synthesis and release of nitric oxide (NO) from endothelial cells enhanced by activation of µ-opioid receptors. Studies on respiratory function showed that EM1-2 peptides attenuate and produce significant respiratory depression in tested animals. Finally, EM1-2 peptides have been shown to induce important inhibitory gastrointestinal effects via the activation of µ-opioid receptors localized in myenteric-plexus neurons that innervate smooth-muscle cells producing a dose-dependent- and CTOP-reversible inhibition of electrically-induced twitch ileum contractions, probably mediated through a reduced release response of several peptide and non-peptide transmitters.<hr/>La endomorfina-1 (EM1) y la endomorfina-2 (EM2) son dos péptidos bioactivos que poseen la más alta afinidad de unión selectiva por el receptor opioide µ en comparación con la unión de distintos ligandos agonistas a este subtipo de receptor opioide (véase resumen y texto del capítulo anterior, parte I). Estudios farmacológicos y conductuales han demostrado que la inyección de las EM1-2 en el área ventrotegmental (AVT) genera respuestas conductuales de sensibilización locomotora a la anfetamina (AMPH), además de incrementar la actividad locomotora de tipo horizontal en los roedores tratados. Estos estudios mostraron que la EM2 fue significativamente más potente que la EM1 en inducir las respuestas locomotoras detectadas, mediadas a través de la alteración de la actividad sináptica de dopamina (DA) y en el globus pallidus de los animales tratados. Asimismo, estudios fármaco-conductuales similares demostraron que otros sistemas de transmisión participan conjuntamente con el sistema dopaminérgico en la generación de los efectos locomotores inducidos por las EM1-2, como es el caso del sistema gabaérgico (GABA). Más aún, la inyección de EM1 en la región AVT del cerebro de roedores mostró generar respuestas potentes de recompensa placentera, similares a las reportadas por distintos alcaloides opiáceos de alto potencial adictivo, posterior a su administración sistémica. Más aún, la inyección de endomorfinas en la región AVT del cerebro del roedor, mas no en el núcleo accumbens (NAc), mostró generar respuestas de recompensa paralela a la generada posteriormente a la administración de dosis bajas de morfina. En línea con los efectos farmacológicos inducidos por las EM1-2, estudios fármaco-conductuales demostraron que la administración ICV de la EM1 fue capaz de generar respuestas de preferencia de lugar en roedores tratados CPP, por sus siglas en inglés, conditioned place preference, en tanto que la administración de EM2 generó respuestas opuestas, esto es, respuestas de aversión al lugar. Estudios conductuales relacionados con el fenómeno de estrés mostraron que las EM1-2 son capaces de modular la actividad funcional del eje HHA (eje hipotálamo/hipófisis/glándula adrenal) a través de la activación del sistema de proyección neuronal del tracto solitario (NTS, por sus siglas en inglés), al hipotálamo y/o a través de la activación del área ventrolateral de la sustancia gris periacueductal (PAG, por sus siglas en inglés); componente importante del sistema opioide endógeno, que median respuestas analgésicas (antinociceptivas) inducidas por estímulos estresantes. Asimismo, la administración de endomorfinas (v.g., EM1) mostró generar incrementos de conductas de naturaleza ansiolítica en ratones expuestos a paradigmas experimentales de generación de conductas estresantes (v.g., laberinto elevado). Estos estudios sugieren que la generación de conductas de estrés-emocional inducidas por las endomorfinas es mediada a través de la activación del receptor opioide µ en neuronas del hipotálamo responsables de regular la secreción de factores liberadores de distintas hormonas hipofisiarias (v.g., CRH, LHRH). Más aún, resulta interesante que las endomorfinas sean capaces de inducir conductas antidepresivas o de tipo antidepresivos como se ha reportado recientemente en modelos animales de estrés y depresión. Estos estudios mostraron que las respuestas conductuales de reacción al estrés y las conductas antidepresivas mediadas por las EM1-2 están ligadas con la expresión neuronal del mensajero de RNA que codifica para el factor trófico (BDNF, por sus siglas en inglés, brain derived neurotrophic factor), en áreas del sistema limbico, y que es inducida en forma dosis-dependiente por las endomorfinas, posterior a su administración ICV. Por lo tanto, estos estudios han permitido proponer que las endomorfinas cumplen un papel relevante durante el curso o desarrollo de las enfermedades mentales (v.g., esquizofrenia y depresión). En extensión a estos estudios conductuales, estudios recientes han demostrado la actividad orexigénica de las endomorfinas en forma similar a lo previamente detectado con distintos ligandos agonistas del receptor opioide µ (v.g., morfina, DAMGO; morfina-6β-glucurónido). Si bien estos estudios mostraron que tanto las EM1-2 como diversos agonistas del receptor opioide µ exhiben potentes actividades orexigénicas en el SNC de roedores, la actividad de las EM1-2 parece depender de la actividad de la dinorfina A y su unión sobre su receptor opioide K en neuronas hipotalámicas. Más aún, diversos estudios han mostrado que el sistema opioide endógeno (a través de la β-endorfina) regula conductas de naturaleza sexual y apareamiento (v.g., lordosis), además de modular la secreción y/o actividad de hormonas de origen gonadal (estrógenos, progesterona). Estudios similares en roedores hembras mostraron que la microinyección de EM1-2 en áreas específicas del sistema límbico y/ o la administración IT de ambos péptidos era capaz de generar respuestas sexuales de apareamiento, similares a las detectadas por la p-endorfina y morficeptina en la misma especie de animal, siendo bloqueados los efectos por la administración de naloxona. Estas respuestas conductuales inducidas por las EM1-2 mostraron estar ligadas a la liberación neuronal de LHRH, como de la activación y modulación del sistema de transmisión gabaérgico. En cuanto a las funciones de memoria y aprendizaje, diferentes estudios han demostrado que la administración ICV de EM1-2 en ratones expuestos a diferentes paradigmas de aprendizaje experimental, los péptidos opioides alteran significativamente los mecanismos de procesamiento y consolidación de memoria a corto y largo plazo en los animales tratados. Estos efectos parecen depender de la modulación del sistema opioide (v.g., el receptor opioide µ) sobre los sistemas de transmisión colinérgica y dopaminérgica en el cerebro de los mamíferos. Asímismo, diversos estudios han demostrado que tanto las EM1-2 como los alcaloides opiáceos y opioides endógenos modulan funciones cardiovasculares y respiratorias. En este contexto, diversos estudios mostraron que la administración de EM1-2 en ratas normotensas e hipertensas produce cambios fisiológicos significativos en la presión sanguínea y la frecuencia cardiaca. Si bien no están del todo esclarecidos los mecanismos por los cuales las endomorfinas producen sus respuestas cardiovasculares, diversos estudios sugieren que la actividad de estos péptidos está en función de la actividad e interacción de los sistemas de transmisión gabaérgico y glutamatérgico, respectivamente. Más aún, otros estudios sugieren que las respuestas fisiológicas de estos péptidos dependen de la actividad del óxido nitroso (NO, por sus siglas en inglés) liberado de los vasos sanguíneos, en respuesta de la activación del receptor opioide µ. Finalmente, diversos estudios han mostrado que las EM1-2 y la activación del receptor opioide µ producen efectos inhibitorios sobre la contracción del músculo liso del tracto gastrointestinal, generados a través de una reducción sostenida en la liberación de neurotransmisores de terminales sinápticas del plexo mientérico, mismas que inervan el tejido muscular liso del tracto gastrointestinal. <![CDATA[<b>La variabilidad del genoma del mexicano</b>: <b>Implicaciones y perspectivas para la investigación en psiquiatría genética en México</b>]]> http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0185-33252010000300008&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es A few months ago the paper entitled <<Analysis of genomic diversity in Mexican Mestizo populations to develop genomic medicine in Mexico>> by Solezzi et al. was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Medicine USA. Beyond its genuine scientific merits, we consider important to comment and discuss it, as some of their scopes and implications have caused not only a wide interest but also some concern in the scientific community and in society as a whole. We focused particularly in the possible impact that it could have in the development of psychiatric genetics in Mexico and Latin America. Firstly, a brief recapitulation of the published work is showed, and its principal data are discussed on the ground of the specialized literature. What is the background of this study and why it is important to develop a HapMap of the Mexican population? It is well known that most of the complex diseases, as is the case for psychiatric conditions, have an important genetic associated component. It is expected that the identification of these genetic factors will be of the most importance in the understanding of etiology, diagnosis, prognosis and therapeutic improvement for psychiatric medicine. The information provided by the collection of millions of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) has been used to develop the so-called international haplotype map (HapMap) Project. The human haplotype blocks catalog allows an important reduction in the number of SNPs that are necessary to perform linkage and genetic association studies, mainly those of the Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) category. However, it is recognized that the frequency of these polymorphisms differs significantly among ethnic groups; so the data published by Solezzi et al. are aimed to develop a HapMap particularly oriented to the Mexican mestizo population. This information will be of outstanding importance in studies including Mexican subjects in order to select the most informative group of SNPs and also to control for possible population stratification flaws. However, achievement of these objectives will need much more work to be done, as for example should it be mandatory to analyze a greater number of polymorphisms, develop genome re-sequenciation projects and include other Mexican subpopulations in the analysis. How this results will help psychiatric genetics in Mexico? As noted above, there is substantial evidence that genetics plays an important influence in the phenotypic expression of mental disorders; however, the effort to identify the specific genetic variants associated with psychiatric conditions has not been very successful. Although multiple reasons could be invoked related to this limited success, here we focus in two specific topics. The first one is related to the candidate gene approach in genetic association studies, in which researchers based on a logic scientific hypothesis evaluate specific genetic variants putatively related to the disorder of interest (i.e. the candidate genes hypothesis). However, the possibility of identification of the associated genetic risk variants is importantly reduced, as the knowledge about complex disorders and particularly those related with mental problems is mostly incomplete. The continuous advances in neurobiological and psychological knowledge provides hope for future improvement and the generation of new ideas. On the other hand, the alternative and technically feasible approach to analyze simultaneously hundred of thousands, even millions, of genetic variants all along the human genome with no regarding of a priori candidate genes (as in the Genome Wide Association Studies, GWAS), has reached the psychiatric genetics arena. In this regard, it is worth noting that several published studies of GWAS and psychiatric disorders have recently appeared and have contributed to develop important clues. Particularly interesting are those pointing out to the until recently unexplored role of Copy Number Variants (CNVs) associated to some forms of autism and schizophrenia. It is worth noting that most GWAS are based in the common disorder-common variant hypothesis (where genetic polymorphisms studied have a frequency >5% in the general population). However, the alternative view of the common disorder-rare variant hypothesis have also been proposed. As most of the rare SNPs have not been identified in the current effort of the HapMap project, a re-sequenciation analysis of human genomes of particular ethnic groups seems to be mandatory. The other relevant issue is related to the following question: Are current psychiatric diagnostic categories proper phenotypes for the study of genetic aspects associated with mental disorders? Diagnosis in psychiatry is based mainly in the identification and interpretation from clinicians of the patient´s cardinal symptoms. However, overlapping of symptoms between nosological categories, comorbidity and changes in natural history of the disorder associated or not to therapeuthical improvements are issues hampering efforts in psychiatric genetics. At this point it is important to recall that psychiatric diagnostic categories have evolved along the last four or five decades after intense discussion among experts. However, even recognizing the clinical virtues of current consensus (integrated for example in the DSM-IV-R), it is clear that is still a pending issue, awaiting the most recent contributions from different areas of knowledge, including genetics. Moreover, unlike other complex disorders like hypertension or diabetes, where use of clinical and relevant phenotypes, such as blood pressure and levels of blood glucose, can increase the power of genetic analysis, in mental disorders this kind of quantitative phenotypes are rare or unknown, which restrains the process to find genetic variants associated with psychiatric disorders, independently of the study design and the technology of analysis. In brief, in countries as ours, composed mainly by mestizo population, is of the utmost importance for molecular genetics studies to obtain specific information about its genetic composition. In this sense, the National Institute of Genomic Medicine has made an important contribution; however, and as correctly stated by Solezzi et al., <<much more work needs to be done>>. We argue that the even the deepest knowledge in genetic variation or use of state-of-the-art technology is not enough to boost the development of psychiatric genetics research. Re-evaluation of current clinical phenotypes and/or identification of new and relevant intermediate or endo- phenotypes in psychiatry are no less important. Additionally, it will be necessary to integrate to the complex equation of the genetics of complex disorders the seminal role of <<environment>>. In this respect we are strong advocates of multidisciplinary research as the clue for better understanding the etiology of mental disorders. Finally, we hope this work will help to elucidate some of the questions and concerns originated from the published article by Silva-Solezzi et al.<hr/>Los resultados del estudio de la variabilidad genómica del mexicano no sólo han sido comentados en el ámbito científico, sino también han generado inquietud en otros grupos de la sociedad mexicana por sus posibles alcances. Por lo anterior, consideramos importante discutir estos datos con el objeto de intentar establecer su impacto en la investigación y desarrollo de la medicina genómica en México y Latinoamérica. En específico nos interesa abordar el área de la genética psiquiátrica. ¿Cuál fue el origen de este estudio y por que es importante desarrollar un mapa de haplotipos de la población mexicana? Se ha reportado que en la etiología de los trastornos complejos, como son los mentales, la genética juega un papel importante. Se espera que la identificación de estos factores genéticos tenga un efecto significativo que ayude a entender la etiología y mejore las intervenciones terapéuticas en psiquiatría. La información obtenida de la colección de los millones de SNPs que conforman el genoma humano, se ha utilizado para promover el proyecto internacional de HapMap. La generación del catálogo de bloques de haplotipos ha sido de gran importancia para reducir el número de SNPs necesarios para desarrollar estudios de ligamiento y de asociación genética, especialmente los estudios de asociación de genoma amplio (GWAS). Se ha reportado que la frecuencia alélica de los SNPs varía significativamente entre las poblaciones, por lo que los datos publicados por Solezzi et al. son necesarios para desarrollar el HapMap de la población mestiza mexicana. Esta información será de suma importancia en estudios que analicen sujetos de origen mexicano debido a que permitirá disminuir el número de SNPs analizados, por medio de la selección de los más informativos; asi mismo ayudará a evitar los posibles errores por estratificación poblacional. Sin embargo, para lograr estos objetivos todavía hay mucho trabajo por hacer. ¿En que medida toda esta información impacta en el estudio de los factores genéticos asociados a los trastornos mentales? Como se mencionó anteriormente, existe evidencia considerable que demuestra la influencia de factores genéticos en el desarrollo de los trastornos mentales; sin embargo, todavía no se han encontrado variantes genéticas específicas asociadas a un trastorno psiquiátrico en particular. Las explicaciones para el éxito limitado son diversas, en este trabajo nos enfocaremos en dos: una relacionada con el alcance que pueden tener las metodologías empleadas para la detección de las variantes genéticas de riesgo y otra que concierne a la definición de los diagnósticos en psiquiatría. Concluimos que los datos sobre la variabilidad genómica publicados por Solezzi et al. constituyen un paso importante en el análisis de la genética de los trastornos complejos en nuestro país. Por otro lado, a la par de estos avances, será necesario ahondar en la definición de los fenotipos clínicos. Finalmente, es evidente la necesidad de desarrollar investigación multidisciplinaria. <![CDATA[<b>Maltrato infantil: Una acción interdisciplinaria e interinstitucional en México. Comisión Nacional para el Estudio y la Atención Integral al Niño Maltratado. </b><b>Primera parte</b>]]> http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0185-33252010000300009&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es A few months ago the paper entitled <<Analysis of genomic diversity in Mexican Mestizo populations to develop genomic medicine in Mexico>> by Solezzi et al. was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Medicine USA. Beyond its genuine scientific merits, we consider important to comment and discuss it, as some of their scopes and implications have caused not only a wide interest but also some concern in the scientific community and in society as a whole. We focused particularly in the possible impact that it could have in the development of psychiatric genetics in Mexico and Latin America. Firstly, a brief recapitulation of the published work is showed, and its principal data are discussed on the ground of the specialized literature. What is the background of this study and why it is important to develop a HapMap of the Mexican population? It is well known that most of the complex diseases, as is the case for psychiatric conditions, have an important genetic associated component. It is expected that the identification of these genetic factors will be of the most importance in the understanding of etiology, diagnosis, prognosis and therapeutic improvement for psychiatric medicine. The information provided by the collection of millions of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) has been used to develop the so-called international haplotype map (HapMap) Project. The human haplotype blocks catalog allows an important reduction in the number of SNPs that are necessary to perform linkage and genetic association studies, mainly those of the Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) category. However, it is recognized that the frequency of these polymorphisms differs significantly among ethnic groups; so the data published by Solezzi et al. are aimed to develop a HapMap particularly oriented to the Mexican mestizo population. This information will be of outstanding importance in studies including Mexican subjects in order to select the most informative group of SNPs and also to control for possible population stratification flaws. However, achievement of these objectives will need much more work to be done, as for example should it be mandatory to analyze a greater number of polymorphisms, develop genome re-sequenciation projects and include other Mexican subpopulations in the analysis. How this results will help psychiatric genetics in Mexico? As noted above, there is substantial evidence that genetics plays an important influence in the phenotypic expression of mental disorders; however, the effort to identify the specific genetic variants associated with psychiatric conditions has not been very successful. Although multiple reasons could be invoked related to this limited success, here we focus in two specific topics. The first one is related to the candidate gene approach in genetic association studies, in which researchers based on a logic scientific hypothesis evaluate specific genetic variants putatively related to the disorder of interest (i.e. the candidate genes hypothesis). However, the possibility of identification of the associated genetic risk variants is importantly reduced, as the knowledge about complex disorders and particularly those related with mental problems is mostly incomplete. The continuous advances in neurobiological and psychological knowledge provides hope for future improvement and the generation of new ideas. On the other hand, the alternative and technically feasible approach to analyze simultaneously hundred of thousands, even millions, of genetic variants all along the human genome with no regarding of a priori candidate genes (as in the Genome Wide Association Studies, GWAS), has reached the psychiatric genetics arena. In this regard, it is worth noting that several published studies of GWAS and psychiatric disorders have recently appeared and have contributed to develop important clues. Particularly interesting are those pointing out to the until recently unexplored role of Copy Number Variants (CNVs) associated to some forms of autism and schizophrenia. It is worth noting that most GWAS are based in the common disorder-common variant hypothesis (where genetic polymorphisms studied have a frequency >5% in the general population). However, the alternative view of the common disorder-rare variant hypothesis have also been proposed. As most of the rare SNPs have not been identified in the current effort of the HapMap project, a re-sequenciation analysis of human genomes of particular ethnic groups seems to be mandatory. The other relevant issue is related to the following question: Are current psychiatric diagnostic categories proper phenotypes for the study of genetic aspects associated with mental disorders? Diagnosis in psychiatry is based mainly in the identification and interpretation from clinicians of the patient´s cardinal symptoms. However, overlapping of symptoms between nosological categories, comorbidity and changes in natural history of the disorder associated or not to therapeuthical improvements are issues hampering efforts in psychiatric genetics. At this point it is important to recall that psychiatric diagnostic categories have evolved along the last four or five decades after intense discussion among experts. However, even recognizing the clinical virtues of current consensus (integrated for example in the DSM-IV-R), it is clear that is still a pending issue, awaiting the most recent contributions from different areas of knowledge, including genetics. Moreover, unlike other complex disorders like hypertension or diabetes, where use of clinical and relevant phenotypes, such as blood pressure and levels of blood glucose, can increase the power of genetic analysis, in mental disorders this kind of quantitative phenotypes are rare or unknown, which restrains the process to find genetic variants associated with psychiatric disorders, independently of the study design and the technology of analysis. In brief, in countries as ours, composed mainly by mestizo population, is of the utmost importance for molecular genetics studies to obtain specific information about its genetic composition. In this sense, the National Institute of Genomic Medicine has made an important contribution; however, and as correctly stated by Solezzi et al., <<much more work needs to be done>>. We argue that the even the deepest knowledge in genetic variation or use of state-of-the-art technology is not enough to boost the development of psychiatric genetics research. Re-evaluation of current clinical phenotypes and/or identification of new and relevant intermediate or endo- phenotypes in psychiatry are no less important. Additionally, it will be necessary to integrate to the complex equation of the genetics of complex disorders the seminal role of <<environment>>. In this respect we are strong advocates of multidisciplinary research as the clue for better understanding the etiology of mental disorders. Finally, we hope this work will help to elucidate some of the questions and concerns originated from the published article by Silva-Solezzi et al.<hr/>Los resultados del estudio de la variabilidad genómica del mexicano no sólo han sido comentados en el ámbito científico, sino también han generado inquietud en otros grupos de la sociedad mexicana por sus posibles alcances. Por lo anterior, consideramos importante discutir estos datos con el objeto de intentar establecer su impacto en la investigación y desarrollo de la medicina genómica en México y Latinoamérica. En específico nos interesa abordar el área de la genética psiquiátrica. ¿Cuál fue el origen de este estudio y por que es importante desarrollar un mapa de haplotipos de la población mexicana? Se ha reportado que en la etiología de los trastornos complejos, como son los mentales, la genética juega un papel importante. Se espera que la identificación de estos factores genéticos tenga un efecto significativo que ayude a entender la etiología y mejore las intervenciones terapéuticas en psiquiatría. La información obtenida de la colección de los millones de SNPs que conforman el genoma humano, se ha utilizado para promover el proyecto internacional de HapMap. La generación del catálogo de bloques de haplotipos ha sido de gran importancia para reducir el número de SNPs necesarios para desarrollar estudios de ligamiento y de asociación genética, especialmente los estudios de asociación de genoma amplio (GWAS). Se ha reportado que la frecuencia alélica de los SNPs varía significativamente entre las poblaciones, por lo que los datos publicados por Solezzi et al. son necesarios para desarrollar el HapMap de la población mestiza mexicana. Esta información será de suma importancia en estudios que analicen sujetos de origen mexicano debido a que permitirá disminuir el número de SNPs analizados, por medio de la selección de los más informativos; asi mismo ayudará a evitar los posibles errores por estratificación poblacional. Sin embargo, para lograr estos objetivos todavía hay mucho trabajo por hacer. ¿En que medida toda esta información impacta en el estudio de los factores genéticos asociados a los trastornos mentales? Como se mencionó anteriormente, existe evidencia considerable que demuestra la influencia de factores genéticos en el desarrollo de los trastornos mentales; sin embargo, todavía no se han encontrado variantes genéticas específicas asociadas a un trastorno psiquiátrico en particular. Las explicaciones para el éxito limitado son diversas, en este trabajo nos enfocaremos en dos: una relacionada con el alcance que pueden tener las metodologías empleadas para la detección de las variantes genéticas de riesgo y otra que concierne a la definición de los diagnósticos en psiquiatría. Concluimos que los datos sobre la variabilidad genómica publicados por Solezzi et al. constituyen un paso importante en el análisis de la genética de los trastornos complejos en nuestro país. Por otro lado, a la par de estos avances, será necesario ahondar en la definición de los fenotipos clínicos. Finalmente, es evidente la necesidad de desarrollar investigación multidisciplinaria. <![CDATA[<b>Distinciones XXIV Premio Miguel Alemán Valdés en el área de Salud. </b><b>Edición 2009</b>]]> http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0185-33252010000300010&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es A few months ago the paper entitled <<Analysis of genomic diversity in Mexican Mestizo populations to develop genomic medicine in Mexico>> by Solezzi et al. was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Medicine USA. Beyond its genuine scientific merits, we consider important to comment and discuss it, as some of their scopes and implications have caused not only a wide interest but also some concern in the scientific community and in society as a whole. We focused particularly in the possible impact that it could have in the development of psychiatric genetics in Mexico and Latin America. Firstly, a brief recapitulation of the published work is showed, and its principal data are discussed on the ground of the specialized literature. What is the background of this study and why it is important to develop a HapMap of the Mexican population? It is well known that most of the complex diseases, as is the case for psychiatric conditions, have an important genetic associated component. It is expected that the identification of these genetic factors will be of the most importance in the understanding of etiology, diagnosis, prognosis and therapeutic improvement for psychiatric medicine. The information provided by the collection of millions of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) has been used to develop the so-called international haplotype map (HapMap) Project. The human haplotype blocks catalog allows an important reduction in the number of SNPs that are necessary to perform linkage and genetic association studies, mainly those of the Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) category. However, it is recognized that the frequency of these polymorphisms differs significantly among ethnic groups; so the data published by Solezzi et al. are aimed to develop a HapMap particularly oriented to the Mexican mestizo population. This information will be of outstanding importance in studies including Mexican subjects in order to select the most informative group of SNPs and also to control for possible population stratification flaws. However, achievement of these objectives will need much more work to be done, as for example should it be mandatory to analyze a greater number of polymorphisms, develop genome re-sequenciation projects and include other Mexican subpopulations in the analysis. How this results will help psychiatric genetics in Mexico? As noted above, there is substantial evidence that genetics plays an important influence in the phenotypic expression of mental disorders; however, the effort to identify the specific genetic variants associated with psychiatric conditions has not been very successful. Although multiple reasons could be invoked related to this limited success, here we focus in two specific topics. The first one is related to the candidate gene approach in genetic association studies, in which researchers based on a logic scientific hypothesis evaluate specific genetic variants putatively related to the disorder of interest (i.e. the candidate genes hypothesis). However, the possibility of identification of the associated genetic risk variants is importantly reduced, as the knowledge about complex disorders and particularly those related with mental problems is mostly incomplete. The continuous advances in neurobiological and psychological knowledge provides hope for future improvement and the generation of new ideas. On the other hand, the alternative and technically feasible approach to analyze simultaneously hundred of thousands, even millions, of genetic variants all along the human genome with no regarding of a priori candidate genes (as in the Genome Wide Association Studies, GWAS), has reached the psychiatric genetics arena. In this regard, it is worth noting that several published studies of GWAS and psychiatric disorders have recently appeared and have contributed to develop important clues. Particularly interesting are those pointing out to the until recently unexplored role of Copy Number Variants (CNVs) associated to some forms of autism and schizophrenia. It is worth noting that most GWAS are based in the common disorder-common variant hypothesis (where genetic polymorphisms studied have a frequency >5% in the general population). However, the alternative view of the common disorder-rare variant hypothesis have also been proposed. As most of the rare SNPs have not been identified in the current effort of the HapMap project, a re-sequenciation analysis of human genomes of particular ethnic groups seems to be mandatory. The other relevant issue is related to the following question: Are current psychiatric diagnostic categories proper phenotypes for the study of genetic aspects associated with mental disorders? Diagnosis in psychiatry is based mainly in the identification and interpretation from clinicians of the patient´s cardinal symptoms. However, overlapping of symptoms between nosological categories, comorbidity and changes in natural history of the disorder associated or not to therapeuthical improvements are issues hampering efforts in psychiatric genetics. At this point it is important to recall that psychiatric diagnostic categories have evolved along the last four or five decades after intense discussion among experts. However, even recognizing the clinical virtues of current consensus (integrated for example in the DSM-IV-R), it is clear that is still a pending issue, awaiting the most recent contributions from different areas of knowledge, including genetics. Moreover, unlike other complex disorders like hypertension or diabetes, where use of clinical and relevant phenotypes, such as blood pressure and levels of blood glucose, can increase the power of genetic analysis, in mental disorders this kind of quantitative phenotypes are rare or unknown, which restrains the process to find genetic variants associated with psychiatric disorders, independently of the study design and the technology of analysis. In brief, in countries as ours, composed mainly by mestizo population, is of the utmost importance for molecular genetics studies to obtain specific information about its genetic composition. In this sense, the National Institute of Genomic Medicine has made an important contribution; however, and as correctly stated by Solezzi et al., <<much more work needs to be done>>. We argue that the even the deepest knowledge in genetic variation or use of state-of-the-art technology is not enough to boost the development of psychiatric genetics research. Re-evaluation of current clinical phenotypes and/or identification of new and relevant intermediate or endo- phenotypes in psychiatry are no less important. Additionally, it will be necessary to integrate to the complex equation of the genetics of complex disorders the seminal role of <<environment>>. In this respect we are strong advocates of multidisciplinary research as the clue for better understanding the etiology of mental disorders. Finally, we hope this work will help to elucidate some of the questions and concerns originated from the published article by Silva-Solezzi et al.<hr/>Los resultados del estudio de la variabilidad genómica del mexicano no sólo han sido comentados en el ámbito científico, sino también han generado inquietud en otros grupos de la sociedad mexicana por sus posibles alcances. Por lo anterior, consideramos importante discutir estos datos con el objeto de intentar establecer su impacto en la investigación y desarrollo de la medicina genómica en México y Latinoamérica. En específico nos interesa abordar el área de la genética psiquiátrica. ¿Cuál fue el origen de este estudio y por que es importante desarrollar un mapa de haplotipos de la población mexicana? Se ha reportado que en la etiología de los trastornos complejos, como son los mentales, la genética juega un papel importante. Se espera que la identificación de estos factores genéticos tenga un efecto significativo que ayude a entender la etiología y mejore las intervenciones terapéuticas en psiquiatría. La información obtenida de la colección de los millones de SNPs que conforman el genoma humano, se ha utilizado para promover el proyecto internacional de HapMap. La generación del catálogo de bloques de haplotipos ha sido de gran importancia para reducir el número de SNPs necesarios para desarrollar estudios de ligamiento y de asociación genética, especialmente los estudios de asociación de genoma amplio (GWAS). Se ha reportado que la frecuencia alélica de los SNPs varía significativamente entre las poblaciones, por lo que los datos publicados por Solezzi et al. son necesarios para desarrollar el HapMap de la población mestiza mexicana. Esta información será de suma importancia en estudios que analicen sujetos de origen mexicano debido a que permitirá disminuir el número de SNPs analizados, por medio de la selección de los más informativos; asi mismo ayudará a evitar los posibles errores por estratificación poblacional. Sin embargo, para lograr estos objetivos todavía hay mucho trabajo por hacer. ¿En que medida toda esta información impacta en el estudio de los factores genéticos asociados a los trastornos mentales? Como se mencionó anteriormente, existe evidencia considerable que demuestra la influencia de factores genéticos en el desarrollo de los trastornos mentales; sin embargo, todavía no se han encontrado variantes genéticas específicas asociadas a un trastorno psiquiátrico en particular. Las explicaciones para el éxito limitado son diversas, en este trabajo nos enfocaremos en dos: una relacionada con el alcance que pueden tener las metodologías empleadas para la detección de las variantes genéticas de riesgo y otra que concierne a la definición de los diagnósticos en psiquiatría. Concluimos que los datos sobre la variabilidad genómica publicados por Solezzi et al. constituyen un paso importante en el análisis de la genética de los trastornos complejos en nuestro país. Por otro lado, a la par de estos avances, será necesario ahondar en la definición de los fenotipos clínicos. Finalmente, es evidente la necesidad de desarrollar investigación multidisciplinaria. <![CDATA[<b>Leon Eisenberg (1922-2009): padecimiento y enfermedad. Contribuciones desde el estudio del autismo y la hiperactividad a la construcción social del cerebro humano</b>]]> http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0185-33252010000300011&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es A few months ago the paper entitled <<Analysis of genomic diversity in Mexican Mestizo populations to develop genomic medicine in Mexico>> by Solezzi et al. was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Medicine USA. Beyond its genuine scientific merits, we consider important to comment and discuss it, as some of their scopes and implications have caused not only a wide interest but also some concern in the scientific community and in society as a whole. We focused particularly in the possible impact that it could have in the development of psychiatric genetics in Mexico and Latin America. Firstly, a brief recapitulation of the published work is showed, and its principal data are discussed on the ground of the specialized literature. What is the background of this study and why it is important to develop a HapMap of the Mexican population? It is well known that most of the complex diseases, as is the case for psychiatric conditions, have an important genetic associated component. It is expected that the identification of these genetic factors will be of the most importance in the understanding of etiology, diagnosis, prognosis and therapeutic improvement for psychiatric medicine. The information provided by the collection of millions of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) has been used to develop the so-called international haplotype map (HapMap) Project. The human haplotype blocks catalog allows an important reduction in the number of SNPs that are necessary to perform linkage and genetic association studies, mainly those of the Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) category. However, it is recognized that the frequency of these polymorphisms differs significantly among ethnic groups; so the data published by Solezzi et al. are aimed to develop a HapMap particularly oriented to the Mexican mestizo population. This information will be of outstanding importance in studies including Mexican subjects in order to select the most informative group of SNPs and also to control for possible population stratification flaws. However, achievement of these objectives will need much more work to be done, as for example should it be mandatory to analyze a greater number of polymorphisms, develop genome re-sequenciation projects and include other Mexican subpopulations in the analysis. How this results will help psychiatric genetics in Mexico? As noted above, there is substantial evidence that genetics plays an important influence in the phenotypic expression of mental disorders; however, the effort to identify the specific genetic variants associated with psychiatric conditions has not been very successful. Although multiple reasons could be invoked related to this limited success, here we focus in two specific topics. The first one is related to the candidate gene approach in genetic association studies, in which researchers based on a logic scientific hypothesis evaluate specific genetic variants putatively related to the disorder of interest (i.e. the candidate genes hypothesis). However, the possibility of identification of the associated genetic risk variants is importantly reduced, as the knowledge about complex disorders and particularly those related with mental problems is mostly incomplete. The continuous advances in neurobiological and psychological knowledge provides hope for future improvement and the generation of new ideas. On the other hand, the alternative and technically feasible approach to analyze simultaneously hundred of thousands, even millions, of genetic variants all along the human genome with no regarding of a priori candidate genes (as in the Genome Wide Association Studies, GWAS), has reached the psychiatric genetics arena. In this regard, it is worth noting that several published studies of GWAS and psychiatric disorders have recently appeared and have contributed to develop important clues. Particularly interesting are those pointing out to the until recently unexplored role of Copy Number Variants (CNVs) associated to some forms of autism and schizophrenia. It is worth noting that most GWAS are based in the common disorder-common variant hypothesis (where genetic polymorphisms studied have a frequency >5% in the general population). However, the alternative view of the common disorder-rare variant hypothesis have also been proposed. As most of the rare SNPs have not been identified in the current effort of the HapMap project, a re-sequenciation analysis of human genomes of particular ethnic groups seems to be mandatory. The other relevant issue is related to the following question: Are current psychiatric diagnostic categories proper phenotypes for the study of genetic aspects associated with mental disorders? Diagnosis in psychiatry is based mainly in the identification and interpretation from clinicians of the patient´s cardinal symptoms. However, overlapping of symptoms between nosological categories, comorbidity and changes in natural history of the disorder associated or not to therapeuthical improvements are issues hampering efforts in psychiatric genetics. At this point it is important to recall that psychiatric diagnostic categories have evolved along the last four or five decades after intense discussion among experts. However, even recognizing the clinical virtues of current consensus (integrated for example in the DSM-IV-R), it is clear that is still a pending issue, awaiting the most recent contributions from different areas of knowledge, including genetics. Moreover, unlike other complex disorders like hypertension or diabetes, where use of clinical and relevant phenotypes, such as blood pressure and levels of blood glucose, can increase the power of genetic analysis, in mental disorders this kind of quantitative phenotypes are rare or unknown, which restrains the process to find genetic variants associated with psychiatric disorders, independently of the study design and the technology of analysis. In brief, in countries as ours, composed mainly by mestizo population, is of the utmost importance for molecular genetics studies to obtain specific information about its genetic composition. In this sense, the National Institute of Genomic Medicine has made an important contribution; however, and as correctly stated by Solezzi et al., <<much more work needs to be done>>. We argue that the even the deepest knowledge in genetic variation or use of state-of-the-art technology is not enough to boost the development of psychiatric genetics research. Re-evaluation of current clinical phenotypes and/or identification of new and relevant intermediate or endo- phenotypes in psychiatry are no less important. Additionally, it will be necessary to integrate to the complex equation of the genetics of complex disorders the seminal role of <<environment>>. In this respect we are strong advocates of multidisciplinary research as the clue for better understanding the etiology of mental disorders. Finally, we hope this work will help to elucidate some of the questions and concerns originated from the published article by Silva-Solezzi et al.<hr/>Los resultados del estudio de la variabilidad genómica del mexicano no sólo han sido comentados en el ámbito científico, sino también han generado inquietud en otros grupos de la sociedad mexicana por sus posibles alcances. Por lo anterior, consideramos importante discutir estos datos con el objeto de intentar establecer su impacto en la investigación y desarrollo de la medicina genómica en México y Latinoamérica. En específico nos interesa abordar el área de la genética psiquiátrica. ¿Cuál fue el origen de este estudio y por que es importante desarrollar un mapa de haplotipos de la población mexicana? Se ha reportado que en la etiología de los trastornos complejos, como son los mentales, la genética juega un papel importante. Se espera que la identificación de estos factores genéticos tenga un efecto significativo que ayude a entender la etiología y mejore las intervenciones terapéuticas en psiquiatría. La información obtenida de la colección de los millones de SNPs que conforman el genoma humano, se ha utilizado para promover el proyecto internacional de HapMap. La generación del catálogo de bloques de haplotipos ha sido de gran importancia para reducir el número de SNPs necesarios para desarrollar estudios de ligamiento y de asociación genética, especialmente los estudios de asociación de genoma amplio (GWAS). Se ha reportado que la frecuencia alélica de los SNPs varía significativamente entre las poblaciones, por lo que los datos publicados por Solezzi et al. son necesarios para desarrollar el HapMap de la población mestiza mexicana. Esta información será de suma importancia en estudios que analicen sujetos de origen mexicano debido a que permitirá disminuir el número de SNPs analizados, por medio de la selección de los más informativos; asi mismo ayudará a evitar los posibles errores por estratificación poblacional. Sin embargo, para lograr estos objetivos todavía hay mucho trabajo por hacer. ¿En que medida toda esta información impacta en el estudio de los factores genéticos asociados a los trastornos mentales? Como se mencionó anteriormente, existe evidencia considerable que demuestra la influencia de factores genéticos en el desarrollo de los trastornos mentales; sin embargo, todavía no se han encontrado variantes genéticas específicas asociadas a un trastorno psiquiátrico en particular. Las explicaciones para el éxito limitado son diversas, en este trabajo nos enfocaremos en dos: una relacionada con el alcance que pueden tener las metodologías empleadas para la detección de las variantes genéticas de riesgo y otra que concierne a la definición de los diagnósticos en psiquiatría. Concluimos que los datos sobre la variabilidad genómica publicados por Solezzi et al. constituyen un paso importante en el análisis de la genética de los trastornos complejos en nuestro país. Por otro lado, a la par de estos avances, será necesario ahondar en la definición de los fenotipos clínicos. Finalmente, es evidente la necesidad de desarrollar investigación multidisciplinaria. <![CDATA[<b>Cuando la ruborización duele. Un adelanto sobre la ruborización facial patológica</b>]]> http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0185-33252010000300012&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es A few months ago the paper entitled <<Analysis of genomic diversity in Mexican Mestizo populations to develop genomic medicine in Mexico>> by Solezzi et al. was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Medicine USA. Beyond its genuine scientific merits, we consider important to comment and discuss it, as some of their scopes and implications have caused not only a wide interest but also some concern in the scientific community and in society as a whole. We focused particularly in the possible impact that it could have in the development of psychiatric genetics in Mexico and Latin America. Firstly, a brief recapitulation of the published work is showed, and its principal data are discussed on the ground of the specialized literature. What is the background of this study and why it is important to develop a HapMap of the Mexican population? It is well known that most of the complex diseases, as is the case for psychiatric conditions, have an important genetic associated component. It is expected that the identification of these genetic factors will be of the most importance in the understanding of etiology, diagnosis, prognosis and therapeutic improvement for psychiatric medicine. The information provided by the collection of millions of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) has been used to develop the so-called international haplotype map (HapMap) Project. The human haplotype blocks catalog allows an important reduction in the number of SNPs that are necessary to perform linkage and genetic association studies, mainly those of the Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) category. However, it is recognized that the frequency of these polymorphisms differs significantly among ethnic groups; so the data published by Solezzi et al. are aimed to develop a HapMap particularly oriented to the Mexican mestizo population. This information will be of outstanding importance in studies including Mexican subjects in order to select the most informative group of SNPs and also to control for possible population stratification flaws. However, achievement of these objectives will need much more work to be done, as for example should it be mandatory to analyze a greater number of polymorphisms, develop genome re-sequenciation projects and include other Mexican subpopulations in the analysis. How this results will help psychiatric genetics in Mexico? As noted above, there is substantial evidence that genetics plays an important influence in the phenotypic expression of mental disorders; however, the effort to identify the specific genetic variants associated with psychiatric conditions has not been very successful. Although multiple reasons could be invoked related to this limited success, here we focus in two specific topics. The first one is related to the candidate gene approach in genetic association studies, in which researchers based on a logic scientific hypothesis evaluate specific genetic variants putatively related to the disorder of interest (i.e. the candidate genes hypothesis). However, the possibility of identification of the associated genetic risk variants is importantly reduced, as the knowledge about complex disorders and particularly those related with mental problems is mostly incomplete. The continuous advances in neurobiological and psychological knowledge provides hope for future improvement and the generation of new ideas. On the other hand, the alternative and technically feasible approach to analyze simultaneously hundred of thousands, even millions, of genetic variants all along the human genome with no regarding of a priori candidate genes (as in the Genome Wide Association Studies, GWAS), has reached the psychiatric genetics arena. In this regard, it is worth noting that several published studies of GWAS and psychiatric disorders have recently appeared and have contributed to develop important clues. Particularly interesting are those pointing out to the until recently unexplored role of Copy Number Variants (CNVs) associated to some forms of autism and schizophrenia. It is worth noting that most GWAS are based in the common disorder-common variant hypothesis (where genetic polymorphisms studied have a frequency >5% in the general population). However, the alternative view of the common disorder-rare variant hypothesis have also been proposed. As most of the rare SNPs have not been identified in the current effort of the HapMap project, a re-sequenciation analysis of human genomes of particular ethnic groups seems to be mandatory. The other relevant issue is related to the following question: Are current psychiatric diagnostic categories proper phenotypes for the study of genetic aspects associated with mental disorders? Diagnosis in psychiatry is based mainly in the identification and interpretation from clinicians of the patient´s cardinal symptoms. However, overlapping of symptoms between nosological categories, comorbidity and changes in natural history of the disorder associated or not to therapeuthical improvements are issues hampering efforts in psychiatric genetics. At this point it is important to recall that psychiatric diagnostic categories have evolved along the last four or five decades after intense discussion among experts. However, even recognizing the clinical virtues of current consensus (integrated for example in the DSM-IV-R), it is clear that is still a pending issue, awaiting the most recent contributions from different areas of knowledge, including genetics. Moreover, unlike other complex disorders like hypertension or diabetes, where use of clinical and relevant phenotypes, such as blood pressure and levels of blood glucose, can increase the power of genetic analysis, in mental disorders this kind of quantitative phenotypes are rare or unknown, which restrains the process to find genetic variants associated with psychiatric disorders, independently of the study design and the technology of analysis. In brief, in countries as ours, composed mainly by mestizo population, is of the utmost importance for molecular genetics studies to obtain specific information about its genetic composition. In this sense, the National Institute of Genomic Medicine has made an important contribution; however, and as correctly stated by Solezzi et al., <<much more work needs to be done>>. We argue that the even the deepest knowledge in genetic variation or use of state-of-the-art technology is not enough to boost the development of psychiatric genetics research. Re-evaluation of current clinical phenotypes and/or identification of new and relevant intermediate or endo- phenotypes in psychiatry are no less important. Additionally, it will be necessary to integrate to the complex equation of the genetics of complex disorders the seminal role of <<environment>>. In this respect we are strong advocates of multidisciplinary research as the clue for better understanding the etiology of mental disorders. Finally, we hope this work will help to elucidate some of the questions and concerns originated from the published article by Silva-Solezzi et al.<hr/>Los resultados del estudio de la variabilidad genómica del mexicano no sólo han sido comentados en el ámbito científico, sino también han generado inquietud en otros grupos de la sociedad mexicana por sus posibles alcances. Por lo anterior, consideramos importante discutir estos datos con el objeto de intentar establecer su impacto en la investigación y desarrollo de la medicina genómica en México y Latinoamérica. En específico nos interesa abordar el área de la genética psiquiátrica. ¿Cuál fue el origen de este estudio y por que es importante desarrollar un mapa de haplotipos de la población mexicana? Se ha reportado que en la etiología de los trastornos complejos, como son los mentales, la genética juega un papel importante. Se espera que la identificación de estos factores genéticos tenga un efecto significativo que ayude a entender la etiología y mejore las intervenciones terapéuticas en psiquiatría. La información obtenida de la colección de los millones de SNPs que conforman el genoma humano, se ha utilizado para promover el proyecto internacional de HapMap. La generación del catálogo de bloques de haplotipos ha sido de gran importancia para reducir el número de SNPs necesarios para desarrollar estudios de ligamiento y de asociación genética, especialmente los estudios de asociación de genoma amplio (GWAS). Se ha reportado que la frecuencia alélica de los SNPs varía significativamente entre las poblaciones, por lo que los datos publicados por Solezzi et al. son necesarios para desarrollar el HapMap de la población mestiza mexicana. Esta información será de suma importancia en estudios que analicen sujetos de origen mexicano debido a que permitirá disminuir el número de SNPs analizados, por medio de la selección de los más informativos; asi mismo ayudará a evitar los posibles errores por estratificación poblacional. Sin embargo, para lograr estos objetivos todavía hay mucho trabajo por hacer. ¿En que medida toda esta información impacta en el estudio de los factores genéticos asociados a los trastornos mentales? Como se mencionó anteriormente, existe evidencia considerable que demuestra la influencia de factores genéticos en el desarrollo de los trastornos mentales; sin embargo, todavía no se han encontrado variantes genéticas específicas asociadas a un trastorno psiquiátrico en particular. Las explicaciones para el éxito limitado son diversas, en este trabajo nos enfocaremos en dos: una relacionada con el alcance que pueden tener las metodologías empleadas para la detección de las variantes genéticas de riesgo y otra que concierne a la definición de los diagnósticos en psiquiatría. Concluimos que los datos sobre la variabilidad genómica publicados por Solezzi et al. constituyen un paso importante en el análisis de la genética de los trastornos complejos en nuestro país. Por otro lado, a la par de estos avances, será necesario ahondar en la definición de los fenotipos clínicos. Finalmente, es evidente la necesidad de desarrollar investigación multidisciplinaria. <![CDATA[<b>Autoevaluación</b>]]> http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0185-33252010000300013&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es A few months ago the paper entitled <<Analysis of genomic diversity in Mexican Mestizo populations to develop genomic medicine in Mexico>> by Solezzi et al. was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Medicine USA. Beyond its genuine scientific merits, we consider important to comment and discuss it, as some of their scopes and implications have caused not only a wide interest but also some concern in the scientific community and in society as a whole. We focused particularly in the possible impact that it could have in the development of psychiatric genetics in Mexico and Latin America. Firstly, a brief recapitulation of the published work is showed, and its principal data are discussed on the ground of the specialized literature. What is the background of this study and why it is important to develop a HapMap of the Mexican population? It is well known that most of the complex diseases, as is the case for psychiatric conditions, have an important genetic associated component. It is expected that the identification of these genetic factors will be of the most importance in the understanding of etiology, diagnosis, prognosis and therapeutic improvement for psychiatric medicine. The information provided by the collection of millions of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) has been used to develop the so-called international haplotype map (HapMap) Project. The human haplotype blocks catalog allows an important reduction in the number of SNPs that are necessary to perform linkage and genetic association studies, mainly those of the Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) category. However, it is recognized that the frequency of these polymorphisms differs significantly among ethnic groups; so the data published by Solezzi et al. are aimed to develop a HapMap particularly oriented to the Mexican mestizo population. This information will be of outstanding importance in studies including Mexican subjects in order to select the most informative group of SNPs and also to control for possible population stratification flaws. However, achievement of these objectives will need much more work to be done, as for example should it be mandatory to analyze a greater number of polymorphisms, develop genome re-sequenciation projects and include other Mexican subpopulations in the analysis. How this results will help psychiatric genetics in Mexico? As noted above, there is substantial evidence that genetics plays an important influence in the phenotypic expression of mental disorders; however, the effort to identify the specific genetic variants associated with psychiatric conditions has not been very successful. Although multiple reasons could be invoked related to this limited success, here we focus in two specific topics. The first one is related to the candidate gene approach in genetic association studies, in which researchers based on a logic scientific hypothesis evaluate specific genetic variants putatively related to the disorder of interest (i.e. the candidate genes hypothesis). However, the possibility of identification of the associated genetic risk variants is importantly reduced, as the knowledge about complex disorders and particularly those related with mental problems is mostly incomplete. The continuous advances in neurobiological and psychological knowledge provides hope for future improvement and the generation of new ideas. On the other hand, the alternative and technically feasible approach to analyze simultaneously hundred of thousands, even millions, of genetic variants all along the human genome with no regarding of a priori candidate genes (as in the Genome Wide Association Studies, GWAS), has reached the psychiatric genetics arena. In this regard, it is worth noting that several published studies of GWAS and psychiatric disorders have recently appeared and have contributed to develop important clues. Particularly interesting are those pointing out to the until recently unexplored role of Copy Number Variants (CNVs) associated to some forms of autism and schizophrenia. It is worth noting that most GWAS are based in the common disorder-common variant hypothesis (where genetic polymorphisms studied have a frequency >5% in the general population). However, the alternative view of the common disorder-rare variant hypothesis have also been proposed. As most of the rare SNPs have not been identified in the current effort of the HapMap project, a re-sequenciation analysis of human genomes of particular ethnic groups seems to be mandatory. The other relevant issue is related to the following question: Are current psychiatric diagnostic categories proper phenotypes for the study of genetic aspects associated with mental disorders? Diagnosis in psychiatry is based mainly in the identification and interpretation from clinicians of the patient´s cardinal symptoms. However, overlapping of symptoms between nosological categories, comorbidity and changes in natural history of the disorder associated or not to therapeuthical improvements are issues hampering efforts in psychiatric genetics. At this point it is important to recall that psychiatric diagnostic categories have evolved along the last four or five decades after intense discussion among experts. However, even recognizing the clinical virtues of current consensus (integrated for example in the DSM-IV-R), it is clear that is still a pending issue, awaiting the most recent contributions from different areas of knowledge, including genetics. Moreover, unlike other complex disorders like hypertension or diabetes, where use of clinical and relevant phenotypes, such as blood pressure and levels of blood glucose, can increase the power of genetic analysis, in mental disorders this kind of quantitative phenotypes are rare or unknown, which restrains the process to find genetic variants associated with psychiatric disorders, independently of the study design and the technology of analysis. In brief, in countries as ours, composed mainly by mestizo population, is of the utmost importance for molecular genetics studies to obtain specific information about its genetic composition. In this sense, the National Institute of Genomic Medicine has made an important contribution; however, and as correctly stated by Solezzi et al., <<much more work needs to be done>>. We argue that the even the deepest knowledge in genetic variation or use of state-of-the-art technology is not enough to boost the development of psychiatric genetics research. Re-evaluation of current clinical phenotypes and/or identification of new and relevant intermediate or endo- phenotypes in psychiatry are no less important. Additionally, it will be necessary to integrate to the complex equation of the genetics of complex disorders the seminal role of <<environment>>. In this respect we are strong advocates of multidisciplinary research as the clue for better understanding the etiology of mental disorders. Finally, we hope this work will help to elucidate some of the questions and concerns originated from the published article by Silva-Solezzi et al.<hr/>Los resultados del estudio de la variabilidad genómica del mexicano no sólo han sido comentados en el ámbito científico, sino también han generado inquietud en otros grupos de la sociedad mexicana por sus posibles alcances. Por lo anterior, consideramos importante discutir estos datos con el objeto de intentar establecer su impacto en la investigación y desarrollo de la medicina genómica en México y Latinoamérica. En específico nos interesa abordar el área de la genética psiquiátrica. ¿Cuál fue el origen de este estudio y por que es importante desarrollar un mapa de haplotipos de la población mexicana? Se ha reportado que en la etiología de los trastornos complejos, como son los mentales, la genética juega un papel importante. Se espera que la identificación de estos factores genéticos tenga un efecto significativo que ayude a entender la etiología y mejore las intervenciones terapéuticas en psiquiatría. La información obtenida de la colección de los millones de SNPs que conforman el genoma humano, se ha utilizado para promover el proyecto internacional de HapMap. La generación del catálogo de bloques de haplotipos ha sido de gran importancia para reducir el número de SNPs necesarios para desarrollar estudios de ligamiento y de asociación genética, especialmente los estudios de asociación de genoma amplio (GWAS). Se ha reportado que la frecuencia alélica de los SNPs varía significativamente entre las poblaciones, por lo que los datos publicados por Solezzi et al. son necesarios para desarrollar el HapMap de la población mestiza mexicana. Esta información será de suma importancia en estudios que analicen sujetos de origen mexicano debido a que permitirá disminuir el número de SNPs analizados, por medio de la selección de los más informativos; asi mismo ayudará a evitar los posibles errores por estratificación poblacional. Sin embargo, para lograr estos objetivos todavía hay mucho trabajo por hacer. ¿En que medida toda esta información impacta en el estudio de los factores genéticos asociados a los trastornos mentales? Como se mencionó anteriormente, existe evidencia considerable que demuestra la influencia de factores genéticos en el desarrollo de los trastornos mentales; sin embargo, todavía no se han encontrado variantes genéticas específicas asociadas a un trastorno psiquiátrico en particular. Las explicaciones para el éxito limitado son diversas, en este trabajo nos enfocaremos en dos: una relacionada con el alcance que pueden tener las metodologías empleadas para la detección de las variantes genéticas de riesgo y otra que concierne a la definición de los diagnósticos en psiquiatría. Concluimos que los datos sobre la variabilidad genómica publicados por Solezzi et al. constituyen un paso importante en el análisis de la genética de los trastornos complejos en nuestro país. Por otro lado, a la par de estos avances, será necesario ahondar en la definición de los fenotipos clínicos. Finalmente, es evidente la necesidad de desarrollar investigación multidisciplinaria.